Ulrich  Middeldorf 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/vitruviustenbook00vitr_0 


VITRUVIUS 


THE  TEN  BOOKS  ON  ARCHITECTURE 

TRANSLATED  BY 

MORRIS  HICKY  MORGAN,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

LATE  PROFESSOR  OF  CLASSICAL  PHILOLOGY 
IN  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  ORIGINAL  DESIGNS 

PREPARED  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF 

HERBERT  LANGFORD  WARREN,  A.M. 

NELSON  ROBINSON  JR.  PROFESSOR  OF  ARCHITECTURE 
IN  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


CAMBRIDGE 

HARVARD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

LONDON : HUMPHREY  MILFORD 
OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 
1914 


COPYRIGHT,  I914,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 


GtTIY  uEiJ  Ei'i  Lit-.u'-a  > 


■J 


PREFACE 


During  the  last  years  of  his  life,  Professor  Morgan  had  devoted 
much  time  and  energy  to  the  preparation  of  a translation  of 
Vitruvius,  which  he  proposed  to  supplement  with  a revised  text, 
illustrations,  and  notes.  He  had  completed  the  translation,  with 
the  exception  of  the  last  four  chapters  of  the  tenth  book,  and  had 
discussed,  with  Professor  Warren,  the  illustrations  intended  for 
the  first  six  books  of  the  work;  the  notes  had  not  been  arranged  or 
completed,  though  many  of  them  were  outlined  in  the  manuscript, 
or  the  intention  to  insert  them  indicated.  The  several  books  of 
the  translation,  so  far  as  it  was  completed,  had  been  read  to 
a little  group  of  friends,  consisting  of  Professors  Sheldon  and 
Kittredge,  and  myself,  and  had  received  our  criticism,  which  had, 
at  times,  been  utilized  in  the  revision  of  the  work. 

After  the  death  of  Professor  Morgan,  in  spite  of  my  obvious 
incompetency  from  a technical  point  of  view,  I undertook,  at  the 
request  of  his  family,  to  complete  the  translation,  and  to  see  the 
book  through  the  press.  I must,  therefore,  assume  entire  respon- 
sibility for  the  translation  of  the  tenth  book,  beginning  with 
chapter  thirteen,  and  further  responsibility  for  necessary  changes 
made  by  me  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  translation,  changes  which, 
in  no  case,  affect  any  theory  held  by  Professor  Morgan,  but  which 
involve  mainly  the  adoption  of  simpler  forms  of  statement,  or  the 
correction  of  obvious  oversights. 

The  text  followed  is  that  of  Valentine  Rose  in  his  second  edi- 
tion (Leipzig,  1899),  and  the  variations  from  this  text  are,  with 
a few  exceptions  which  are  indicated  in  the  footnotes,  in  the 
nature  of  a return  to  the  consensus  of  the  manuscript  readings. 

The  illustrations  in  the  first  six  books  are  believed  to  be  sub- 
stantially in  accord  with  the  wishes  of  Professor  Morgan.  The 
suggestions  for  illustrations  in  the  later  books  were  incomplete, 


IV 


PREFACE 


and  did  not  indicate,  in  all  cases,  with  sufficient  definiteness  to 
allow  them  to  be  executed,  the  changes  from  conventional  plans 
and  designs  intended  by  the  translator.  It  has,  therefore,  been 
decided  to  include  in  this  part  of  the  work  only  those  illustrations 
which  are  known  to  have  had  the  full  approval  of  Professor 
Morgan.  The  one  exception  to  this  principle  is  the  reproduction 
of  a rough  model  of  the  Ram  of  Hegetor,  constructed  by  me  on  the 
basis  of  the  measurements  given  by  Vitruvius  and  Athenaeus. 

It  does  not  seem  to  me  necessary  or  even  advisable  to  enter 
into  a long  discussion  as  to  the  date  of  Vitruvius,  which  has  been 
assigned  to  various  periods  from  the  time  of  Augustus  to  the  early 
centuries  of  our  era.  Professor  Morgan,  in  several  articles  in  the 
Harvard  Studies  in  Classical  Philology , and  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  American  Academy , all  of  which  have  been  reprinted  in  a 
volume  of  Addresses  and  Essays  (New  York,  1909),  upheld  the 
now  generally  accepted  view  that  Vitruvius  wrote  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  and  furnished  conclusive  evidence  that  nothing  in  his 
language  is  inconsistent  with  this  view.  In  revising  the  transla- 
tion, I met  with  one  bit  of  evidence  for  a date  before  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Nero  which  I have  never  seen  adduced.  In  viii,  3,  21,  the 
kingdom  of  Cottius  is  mentioned,  the  name  depending,  it  is  true, 
on  an  emendation,  but  one  which  has  been  universally  accepted 
since  it  was  first  proposed  in  1513.  The  kingdom  of  Cottius  was 
made  into  a Roman  province  by  Nero  (cf.  Suetonius,  Nero , 18), 
and  it  is  inconceivable  that  any  Roman  writer  subsequently 
referred  to  it  as  a kingdom. 

It  does  seem  necessary  to  add  a few  words  about  the  literary 
merits  of  Vitruvius  in  this  treatise,  and  about  Professor  Morgan’s 
views  as  to  the  general  principles  to  be  followed  in  the  translation. 

Vitruvius  was  not  a great  literary  personage,  ambitious  as  he 
was  to  appear  in  that  character.  As  Professor  Morgan  has  aptly 
said,  “he  has  all  the  marks  of  one  unused  to  composition,  to 
whom  writing  is  a painful  task.”  In  his  hand  the  measuring-rod 
was  a far  mightier  implement  than  the  pen.  His  turgid  and  pom- 
pous rhetoric  displays  itself  in  the  introductions  to  the  different 


PREFACE 


v 


books,  where  his  exaggerated  effort  to  introduce  some  semblance 
of  style  into  his  commonplace  lectures  on  the  noble  principles 
which  should  govern  the  conduct  of  the  architect,  or  into  the  pro- 
saic lists  of  architects  and  writers  on  architecture,  is  everywhere 
apparent.  Even  in  the  more  technical  portions  of  his  work,  a like 
conscious  effort  may  be  detected,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a lack 
of  confidence  in  his  ability  to  express  himself  in  unmistakable 
language.  He  avoids  periodic  sentences,  uses  only  the  simpler 
subjunctive  constructions,  repeats  the  antecedent  in  relative 
clauses,  and,  not  infrequently,  adopts  a formal  language  closely 
akin  to  that  of  specifications  and  contracts,  the  style  with  which 
he  was,  naturally,  most  familiar.  He  ends  each  book  with  a brief 
summary,  almost  a formula,  somewhat  like  a sigh  of  relief,  in 
which  the  reader  unconsciously  shares.  At  times  his  meaning  is 
ambiguous,  not  because  of  grammatical  faults,  which  are  com- 
paratively few  and  unimportant,  but  because,  when  he  does 
attempt  a periodic  sentence,  he  becomes  involved,  and  finds  it 
difficult  to  extricate  himself. 

Some  of  these  peculiarities  and  crudities  of  expression  Professor 
Morgan  purposely  imitated,  because  of  his  conviction  that  a 
translation  should  not  merely  reproduce  the  substance  of  a 
book,  but  should  also  give  as  clear  a picture  as  possible  of  the 
original,  of  its  author,  and  of  the  working  of  his  mind.  The 
translation  is  intended,  then,  to  be  faithful  and  exact,  but  it 
deliberately  avoids  any  attempt  to  treat  the  language  of  Vitru- 
vius as  though  it  were  Ciceronian,  or  to  give  a false  impression  of 
conspicuous  literary  merit  in  a work  which  is  destitute  of  that 
quality.  The  translator  had,  however,  the  utmost  confidence  in 
the  sincerity  of  Vitruvius  and  in  the  serious  purpose  of  his  treatise 
on  architecture. 

To  those  who  have  liberally  given  their  advice  and  suggestions 
in  response  to  requests  from  Professor  Morgan,  it  is  impossible 
for  me  to  make  adequate  acknowledgment.  Their  number  is  so 
great,  and  my  knowledge  of  the  indebtedness  in  individual  cases 
is  so  small,  that  each  must  be  content  with  the  thought  of  the  full 


vi 


PREFACE 


and  generous  acknowledgment  which  he  would  have  received  had 
Professor  Morgan  himself  written  this  preface. 

Personally  I am  under  the  greatest  obligations  to  Professor 
H.  L.  Warren,  who  has  freely  given  both  assistance  and  criticism; 
to  Professor  G.  L.  Kittredge,  who  has  read  with  me  most  of  the 
proof ; to  the  Syndics  of  the  Harvard  University  Press,  who  have 
made  possible  the  publication  of  the  work;  and  to  the  members  of 
the  Visiting  Committee  of  the  Department  of  the  Classics  and 
the  classmates  of  Professor  Morgan,  who  have  generously  sup- 
plied the  necessary  funds  for  the  illustrations. 

ALBERT  A.  HOWARD. 


CONTENTS 


BOOK  I 

Preface  3 

The  Education  of  the  Architect . . 5 

The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Architecture  ....  13 

The  Departments  of  Architecture  . . . . . . .16 

The  Site  of  a City 17 

The  City  Walls 21 

The  Directions  of  the  Streets;  with  Remarks  on  the  Winds  . 24 

The  Sites  for  Public  Buildings  . . . . . . .31 

BOOK  II 

Introduction 35 

The  Origin  of  the  Dwelling  House  38 

On  the  Primordial  Substance  according  to  the  Physicists.  . 42 

Brick 42 

Sand 

Lime  . 45 

Pozzolana  

Stone . 49 

Methods  of  building  Walls 51 

Timber 

Highland  and  Lowland  Fir  64 

BOOK  in 

Introduction 69 

On  Symmetry:  in  Temples  and  in  the  Human  Body  ...  72 

Classification  of  Temples  .........  75 

The  Proportions  of  Intercolumniations  and  of  Columns  . . 78 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


The  Foundations  and  Substructures  of  Temples  . . .86 

Proportions  of  the  Base,  Capitals,  and  Entablature  in  the 
Ionic  Order 90 

BOOK  IV 

Introduction 101 

The  Origins  of  the  Three  Orders,  and  the  Proportions  of  the 
Corinthian  Capital 102 

The  Ornaments  of  the  Orders 107 

Proportions  of  Doric  Temples 109 

The  Cella  and  Pronaos 114 

How  the  Temple  should  face 116 

The  Doorways  of  Temples 117 

Tuscan  Temples 120 

Circular  Temples  and  Other  Varieties 122 

Altars  125 

BOOK  V 

Introduction 129 

The  Forum  and  Basilica 131 

The  Treasury,  Prison,  and  Senate  House 137 

The  Theatre:  its  Site,  Foundations,  and  Acoustics  . . . 137 

Harmonics 139 

Sounding  Vessels  in  the  Theatre 143 

Plan  of  the  Theatre  146 

Greek  Theatres 151 

Acoustics  of  the  Site  of  a Theatre 153 

Colonnades  and  Walks 154 

Baths 157 

The  Palaestra  159 

Harbours,  Breakwaters,  and  Shipyards 162 

BOOK  VI 

Introduction  ...........  167 

On  Climate  as  determining  the  Style  of  the  House  . . . 170 

Symmetry,  and  Modifications  in  it  to  suit  the  Site  . . .174 


CONTENTS 


IX 


Proportions  of  the  Principal  Rooms 176 

The  Proper  Exposures  of  the  Different  Rooms  ....  180 

How  the  Rooms  should  be  suited  to  the  Station  of  the 
Owner 181 

The  Farmhouse 183 

The  Greek  House 185 

On  Foundations  and  Substructures 189 

BOOK  VII 

Introduction 195 

Floors 202 

The  Slaking  of  Lime  for  Stucco 204 

Vaultings  and  Stucco  Work  205 

On  Stucco  Work  in  Damp  Places,  and  on  the  Decoration  of 
Dining  Rooms 208 

The  Decadence  of  Fresco  Painting 210 

Marble  for  use  in  Stucco 213 

Natural  Colours 214 

Cinnabar  and  Quicksilver 215 

Cinnabar  ( continued ) 216 

Artificial  Colours.  Black 217 

Blue.  Burnt  Ochre  ..........  218 

White  Lead,  Verdigris,  and  Artificial  Sandarach  . . . 219 

Purple 219 

Substitutes  for  Purple,  Yellow  Ochre,  Malachite  Green,  and 
Indigo 220 

BOOK  VIII 

Introduction 225 

How  to  find  Water 227 

Rainwater  229 

Various  Properties  of  Different  Waters 232 

Tests  of  Good  Water 242 

Levelling  and  Levelling  Instruments 242 

Aqueducts,  Wells,  and  Cisterns  244 


X 


CONTENTS 


BOOK  IX 

Introduction 251 

The  Zodiac  and  the  Planets 257 

The  Phases  of  the  Moon 262 

The  Course  of  the  Sun  through  the  Twelve  Signs  . . . 264 

The  Northern  Constellations 265 

The  Southern  Constellations 267 

Astrology  and  Weather  Prognostics 269 

The  Analemma  and  its  Applications 270 

Sundials  and  Water  Clocks 273 

BOOK  X 

Introduction 281 

Machines  and  Implements 283 

Hoisting  Machines 285 

The  Elements  of  Motion 290 

Engines  for  raising  Water 293 

Water  Wheels  and  Water  Mills 294 

The  Water  Screw 295 

The  Pump  of  Ctesibius  . . * 297 

The  Water  Organ 299 

The  Hodometer 301 

Catapults  or  Scorpiones 303 

Ballistae 305 

The  Stringing  and  Tuning  of  Catapults 308 

Siege  Machines  309 

The  Tortoise  . . . 311 

Hegetor’s  Tortoise  . . .312 

Measures  of  Defence  .........  315 

Note  on  Scamilli  Impares  .........  320 

Index 321 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Caryatides  from  Treasury  of  Cnidians,  Delphi  ....  6 

Caryatides  of  Erechtheum,  Athens 6 

Caryatid  in  Villa  Albani,  Rome  .......  6 

Caryatides 7 

Persians 9 

Construction  of  City  Walls  23 

Tower  of  the  Winds,  Athens 26 

Diagram  of  the  Winds 29 

Diagram  of  Directions  of  Streets 30 

Vitruvius’  Brick-Bond 44 

Travertine  Quarries,  Roman  Campagna 49 

Example  of  Opus  Incertum,  Circular  Temple,  Tivoli  ...  51 

Opus  Reticulatum,  Thermae  of  Hadrian’s  Villa,  Tivoli  . . 52 

Example  of  Opus  Reticulatum,  Doorway  of  Stoa  Poecile,  Had- 
rian’s Villa 52 

Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus,  restored 54 

Classification  of  Temples  according  to  Arrangements  of  Colon- 
nades   76 

Hypaethral  Temple  of  Vitruvius  compared  with  Parthenon  and 
Temple  of  Apollo  near  Miletus  77 

Classification  of  Temples  according  to  Intercolumniation  . . 79 

Eustyle  Temple  of  Vitruvius  compared  with  Temple  of  Teos  . 81 

Vitruvius’  Rules  for  Diameter  and  Height  of  Columns  compared 
with  Actual  Examples 83 

Diminution  of  Columns  in  Relation  to  Dimensions  of  Height.  85 

Entasis  of  Columns  87 

Fra  Giocondo’s  Idea  of  “Scamilli  Impares”  .....  89 

Ionic  Order  according  to  Vitruvius  compared  with  Order  of 
Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus.  .......  91 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Comparison  of  Ionic  Order  according  to  Vitruvius  with  Actual 
Examples  and  with  Vignola’s  Order 95 

Basilica  at  Pompeii 104 

Corinthian  Capital  of  Vitruvius  compared  with  Monuments  . 105 

Vitruvius’  Doric  Order  compared  with  Temple  at  Cori  and  Thea- 
tre of  Marcellus HI 

Vitruvius’  Temple  Plan  compared  with  Actual  Examples  . .115 

Vitruvius’  Rule  for  Doorways  compared  with  Two  Examples  . 119 

Tuscan  Temple  according  to  Vitruvius 121 

Circular  Temple,  Tivoli 123 

Maison  Carree,  Nimes 123 

Plan  of  Temple,  Tivoli 123 

Plan  of  Temple  of  Vesta,  Rome 123 

Plan  of  Circular  Temple  according  to  Vitruvius  . . . 124 

Forum,  Timgad 131 

Forum,  Pompeii 133 

Plan  of  Basilica,  Pompeii 134 

Vitruvius’  Basilica,  Fano 135 

Roman  Theatre  according  to  Vitruvius 147 

Theatre  at  Aspendus 149 

Theatre  Portico  according  to  Vitruvius 152 

Tepidarium  of  Stabian  Baths,  Pompeii 157 

Apodyterium  for  Women,  Stabian  Baths,  Pompeii  ....  157 

Stabian  Baths,  Pompeii 158 

Palaestra,  Olympia,  and  Greek  Palaestra  according  to  Vitruvius  161 

Plans  of  Houses,  Pompeii 176 

Plan  of  House  of  Silver  Wedding,  Pompeii 177 

Plan  of  typical  Roman  House 178 

Peristyle  of  House  of  the  Vettii,  Pompeii 179 

Plan  of  House  of  the  Vettii,  Pompeii  ......  179 

Plan  of  Villa  Rustica,  near  Pompeii 183 

Plan  of  Vitruvius’  Greek  House 186 

Plan  of  Greek  House,  Delos 187 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

Plan  of  Greek  House  discovered  at  Pergamum  ....  188 

Retaining  Walls 191 

Construction  of  the  Analemma 271 

Construction  of  Water  Screw 295 

Water  Screw 296 

Hegetor’s  Ram  and  Tortoise 312 

1.  From  sixteenth  century  MS. 

2.  From  model  by  A.  A.  Howard. 


VITRUVIUS 


BOOK  I 


BOOK  I 


PREFACE 

1.  While  your  divine  intelligence  and  will,  Imperator  Caesar, 
were  engaged  in  acquiring  the  right  to  command  the  world,  and 
while  your  fellow  citizens,  when  all  their  enemies  had  been  laid 
low  by  your  invincible  valour,  were  glorying  in  your  triumph  and 
victory,  — while  all  foreign  nations  were  in  subjection  awaiting 
your  beck  and  call,  and  the  Roman  people  and  senate,  released 
from  their  alarm,  were  beginning  to  be  guided  by  your  most  noble 
conceptions  and  policies,  I hardly  dared,  in  view  of  your  serious 
employments,  to  publish  my  writings  and  long  considered  ideas 
on  architecture,  for  fear  of  subjecting  myself  to  your  displeasure 
by  an  unseasonable  interruption. 

2.  But  when  I saw  that  you  were  giving  your  attention  not 
only  to  the  welfare  of  society  in  general  and  to  the  establishment 
of  public  order,  but  also  to  the  providing  of  public  buildings 
intended  for  utilitarian  purposes,  so  that  not  only  should  the 
State  have  been  enriched  with  provinces  by  your  means,  but  that 
the  greatness  of  its  power  might  likewise  be  attended  with  dis- 
tinguished authority  in  its  public  buildings,  I thought  that  I 
ought  to  take  the  first  opportunity  to  lay  before  you  my  writings 
on  this  theme.  For  in  the  first  place  it  was  this  subject  which  made 
me  known  to  your  father,  to  whom  I was  devoted  on  account  of 
his  great  qualities.  After  the  council  of  heaven  gave  him  a place 
in  the  dwellings  of  immortal  life  and  transferred  your  father’s 
power  to  your  hands,  my  devotion  continuing  unchanged  as  I 
remembered  him  inclined  me  to  support  you.  And  so  with 
Marcus  Aurelius,  Publius  Minidius,  and  Gnaeus  Cornelius,  I 
was  ready  to  supply  and  repair  ballistae,  scorpiones,  and  other 
artillery,  and  I have  received  rewards  for  good  service  with  them. 
After  your  first  bestowal  of  these  upon  me,  you  continued  to 
renew  them  on  the  recommendation  of  your  sister. 


4 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


3.  Owing  to  this  favour  I need  have  no  fear  of  want  to  the  end 
of  my  life,  and  being  thus  laid  under  obligation  I began  to  write 
this  work  for  you,  because  I saw  that  you  have  built  and  are  now 
building  extensively,  and  that  in  future  also  you  will  take  care 
that  our  public  and  private  buildings  shall  be  worthy  to  go  down 
to  posterity  by  the  side  of  your  other  splendid  achievements.  I 
have  drawn  up  definite  rules  to  enable  you,  by  observing  them, 
to  have  personal  knowledge  of  the  quality  both  of  existing  build- 
ings and  of  those  which  are  yet  to  be  constructed.  For  in  the  fol- 
lowing books  I have  disclosed  all  the  principles  of  the  art. 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  ARCHITECT 

1.  The  architect  should  be  equipped  with  knowledge  of  many 
branches  of  study  and  varied  kinds  of  learning,  for  it  is  by  his 
judgement  that  all  work  done  by  the  other  arts  is  put  to  test. 
This  knowledge  is  the  child  of  practice  and  theory.  Practice  is 
the  continuous  and  regular  exercise  of  employment  where  man- 
ual work  is  done  with  any  necessary  material  according  to  the 
design  of  a drawing.  Theory,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  ability 
to  demonstrate  and  explain  the  productions  of  dexterity  on  the 
principles  of  proportion. 

2.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  architects  who  have  aimed  at 
acquiring  manual  skill  without  scholarship  have  never  been  able 
to  reach  a position  of  authority  to  correspond  to  their  pains, 
while  those  who  relied  only  upon  theories  and  scholarship  were 
obviously  hunting  the  shadow,  not  the  substance.  But  those  who 
have  a thorough  knowledge  of  both,  like  men  armed  at  all  points, 
have  the  sooner  attained  their  object  and  carried  authority  with 
them. 

3.  In  all  matters,  but  particularly  in  architecture,  there  are 
these  two  points:  — the  thing  signified,  and  that  which  gives  it 
its  significance.  That  which  is  signified  is  the  subject  of  which  we 
may  be  speaking;  and  that  which  gives  significance  is  a demon- 
stration on  scientific  principles.  It  appears,  then,  that  one  who 
professes  himself  an  architect  should  be  well  versed  in  both  direc- 
tions. He  ought,  therefore,  to  be  both  naturally  gifted  and 
amenable  to  instruction.  Neither  natural  ability  without  instruc- 
tion nor  instruction  without  natural  ability  can  make  the  perfect 
artist.  Let  him  be  educated,  skilful  with  the  pencil,  instructed  in 
geometry,  know  much  history,  have  followed  the  philosophers 
with  attention,  understand  music,  have  some  knowledge  of  medi- 


VITRUVIUS 


6 


[Book  I 


cine,  know  the  opinions  of  the  jurists,  and  be  acquainted  with 
astronomy  and  the  theory  of  the  heavens. 

4.  The  reasons  for  all  this  are  as  follows.  An  architect  ought  to 
be  an  educated  man  so  as  to  leave  a more  lasting  remembrance  in 
his  treatises.  Secondly,  he  must  have  a knowledge  of  drawing  so 
that  he  can  readily  make  sketches  to  show  the  appearance  of  the 
work  which  he  proposes.  Geometry,  also,  is  of  much  assistance 
in  architecture,  and  in  particular  it  teaches  us  the  use  of  the  rule 
and  compasses,  by  which  especially  we  acquire  readiness  in  mak- 
ing plans  for  buildings  in  their  grounds,  and  rightly  apply  the 
square,  the  level,  and  the  plummet.  By  means  of  optics,  again, 
the  light  in  buildings  can  be  drawn  from  fixed  quarters  of  the  sky. 
It  is  true  that  it  is  by  arithmetic  that  the  total  cost  of  buildings  is 
calculated  and  measurements  are  computed,  but  difficult  ques- 
tions involving  symmetry  are  solved  by  means  of  geometrical 
theories  and  methods. 

5.  A wide  knowledge  of  history  is  requisite  because,  among  the 
ornamental  parts  of  an  architect’s  design  for  a work,  there  are 
many  the  underlying  idea  of  whose  employment  he  should  be 
able  to  explain  to  inquirers.  For  instance,  suppose  him  to  set  up 
the  marble  statues  of  women  in  long  robes,  called  Caryatides,  to 
take  the  place  of  columns,  with  the  mutules  and  coronas  placed 
directly  above  their  heads,  he  will  give  the  following  explanation 
to  his  questioners.  Caryae,  a state  in  Peloponnesus,  sided  with 
the  Persian  enemies  against  Greece;  later  the  Greeks,  having 
gloriously  won  their  freedom  by  victory  in  the  war,  made  com- 
mon cause  and  declared  war  against  the  people  of  Caryae.  They 
took  the  town,  killed  the  men,  abandoned  the  State  to  desolation, 
and  carried  off  their  wives  into  slavery,  without  permitting  them, 
however,  to  lay  aside  the  long  robes  and  other  marks  of  their 
rank  as  married  women,  so  that  they  might  be  obliged  not  only  to 
march  in  the  triumph  but  to  appear  forever  after  as  a type  of 
slavery,  burdened  with  the  weight  of  their  shame  and  so  making 
atonement  for  their  State.  Hence,  the  architects  of  the  time  de- 
signed for  public  buildings  statues  of  these  women,  placed  so  as  to 


Chap.  I]  EDUCATION  OF  THE  ARCHITECT 


7 


carry  a load,  in  order  that  the  sin  and  the  punishment  of  the  people 
of  Caryae  might  be  known  and  handed  down  even  to  posterity. 

6.  Likewise  the  Lacedaemonians  under  the  leadership  of 
Pausanias,  son  of  Agesipolis,  after  conquering  the  Persian 


CARYATIDES 

(From  the  edition  of  Vitruvius  by  Fra  Giocondo,  Venice,  1511) 


armies,  infinite  in  number,  with  a small  force  at  the  battle  of 
Plataea,  celebrated  a glorious  triumph  with  the  spoils  and  booty, 
and  with  the  money  obtained  from  the  sale  thereof  built  the 
Persian  Porch,  to  be  a monument  to  the  renown  and  valour  of  the 
people  and  a trophy  of  victory  for  posterity.  And  there  they  set 
effigies  of  the  prisoners  arrayed  in  barbarian  costume  and  holding 
up  the  roof,  their  pride  punished  by  this  deserved  affront,  that 


8 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


enemies  might  tremble  for  fear  of  the  effects  of  their  courage,  and 
that  their  own  people,  looking  upon  this  ensample  of  their 
valour  and  encouraged  by  the  glory  of  it,  might  be  ready  to 
defend  their  independence.  So  from  that  time  on,  many  have 
put  up  statues  of  Persians  supporting  entablatures  and  their 
ornaments,  and  thus  from  that  motive  have  greatly  enriched  the 
diversity  of  their  works.  There  are  other  stories  of  the  same  kind 
which  architects  ought  to  know. 

7.  As  for  philosophy,  it  makes  an  architect  high-minded  and 
not  self-assuming,  but  rather  renders  him  courteous,  just,  and 
honest  without  avariciousness.  This  is  very  important,  for  no 
work  can  be  rightly  done  without  honesty  and  incorruptibility. 
Let  him  not  be  grasping  nor  have  his  mind  preoccupied  with  the 
idea  of  receiving  perquisites,  but  let  him  with  dignity  keep  up  his 
position  by  cherishing  a good  reputation.  These  are  among  the 
precepts  of  philosophy.  Furthermore  philosophy  treats  of 
physics  (in  Greek  (frvcrioXoyta)  where  a more  careful  knowledge 
is  required  because  the  problems  which  come  under  this  head  are 
numerous  and  of  very  different  kinds;  as,  for  example,  in  the  case 
of  the  conducting  of  water.  For  at  points  of  intake  and  at  curves, 
and  at  places  where  it  is  raised  to  a level,  currents  of  air  naturally 
form  in  one  way  or  another;  and  nobody  who  has  not  learned 
the  fundamental  principles  of  physics  from  philosophy  will  be  able 
to  provide  against  the  damage  which  they  do.  So  the  reader  of 
Ctesibius  or  Archimedes  and  the  other  writers  of  treatises  of  the 
same  class  will  not  be  able  to  appreciate  them  unless  he  has  been 
trained  in  these  subjects  by  the  philosophers. 

8.  Music,  also,  the  architect  ought  to  understand  so  that  he 
may  have  knowledge  of  the  canonical  and  mathematical  theory, 
and  besides  be  able  to  tune  ballistae,  catapultae,  and  scorpiones 
to  the  proper  key.  For  to  the  right  and  left  in  the  beams  are  the 
holes  in  the  frames  through  which  the  strings  of  twisted  sinew  are 
stretched  by  means  of  windlasses  and  bars,  and  these  strings 
must  not  be  clamped  and  made  fast  until  they  give  the  same  cor- 
rect note  to  the  ear  of  the  skilled  workman.  For  the  arms  thrust 


9 


Chap.  I]  EDUCATION  OF  THE  ARCHITECT 


through  those  stretched  strings  must,  on  being  let  go,  strike  their 
blow  together  at  the  same  moment;  but  if  they  are  not  in  unison, 
they  will  prevent  the  course  of  projectiles  from  being  straight. 


PERSIANS 

(From  the  edition  of  Vitruvius  by  Fra  Giocondo,  Venice,  1511) 


9.  In  theatres,  likewise,  there  are  the  bronze  vessels  (in  Greek 
which  are  placed  in  niches  under  the  seats  in  accordance 
with  the  musical  intervals  on  mathematical  principles.  These 
vessels  are  arranged  with  a view  to  musical  concords  or  harmony, 
and  apportioned  in  the  compass  of  the  fourth,  the  fifth,  and  the 
octave,  and  so  on  up  to  the  double  octave,  in  such  a way  that 
when  the  voice  of  an  actor  falls  in  unison  with  any  of  them  its 
power  is  increased,  and  it  reaches  the  ears  of  the  audience  with 


10 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


greater  clearness  and  sweetness.  Water  organs,  too,  and  the 
other  instruments  which  resemble  them  cannot  be  made  by  one 
who  is  without  the  principles  of  music. 

10.  The  architect  should  also  have  a knowledge  of  the  study  of 
medicine  on  account  of  the  questions  of  climates  (in  Greek 
/cXi/iara),  air,  the  healthiness  and  unhealthiness  of  sites,  and  the 
use  of  different  waters.  For  without  these  considerations,  the 
healthiness  of  a dwelling  cannot  be  assured.  And  as  for  princi- 
ples of  law,  he  should  know  those  which  are  necessary  in  the  case 
of  buildings  having  party  walls,  with  regard  to  water  dripping 
from  the  eaves,  and  also  the  laws  about  drains,  windows,  and 
water  supply.  And  other  things  of  this  sort  should  be  known  to 
architects,  so  that,  before  they  begin  upon  buildings,  they  may  be 
careful  not  to  leave  disputed  points  for  the  householders  to  settle 
after  the  works  are  finished,  and  so  that  in  drawing  up  contracts 
the  interests  of  both  employer  and  contractor  may  be  wisely 
safe-guarded.  For  if  a contract  is  skilfully  drawn,  each  may  ob- 
tain a release  from  the  other  without  disadvantage.  From  astron- 
omy we  find  the  east,  west,  south,  and  north,  as  well  as  the  theory 
of  the  heavens,  the  equinox,  solstice,  and  courses  of  the  stars.  If 
one  has  no  knowledge  of  these  matters,  he  will  not  be  able  to  have 
any  comprehension  of  the  theory  of  sundials. 

11.  Consequently,  since  this  study  is  so  vast  in  extent,  embel- 
lished and  enriched  as  it  is  with  many  different  kinds  of  learning, 
I think  that  men  have  no  right  to  profess  themselves  architects 
hastily,  without  having  climbed  from  boyhood  the  steps  of  these 
studies  and  thus,  nursed  by  the  knowledge  of  many  arts  and 
sciences,  having  reached  the  heights  of  the  holy  ground  of 
architecture. 

12.  But  perhaps  to  the  inexperienced  it  will  seem  a marvel  that 
human  nature  can  comprehend  such  a great  number  of  studies 
and  keep  them  in  the  memory.  Still,  the  observation  that  all 
studies  have  a common  bond  of  union  and  intercourse  with  one 
another,  will  lead  to  the  belief  that  this  can  easily  be  realized. 
For  a liberal  education  forms,  as  it  were,  a single  body  made  up  of 


chap.  I]  EDUCATION  OF  THE  ARCHITECT 


11 


these  members.  Those,  therefore,  who  from  tender  years  receive 
instruction  in  the  various  forms  of  learning,  recognize  the  same 
stamp  on  all  the  arts,  and  an  intercourse  between  all  studies,  and 
so  they  more  readily  comprehend  them  all.  This  is  what  led  one 
of  the  ancient  architects,  Pytheos,  the  celebrated  builder  of  the 
temple  of  Minerva  at  Priene,  to  say  in  his  Commentaries  that  an 
architect  ought  to  be  able  to  accomplish  much  more  in  all  the 
arts  and  sciences  than  the  men  who,  by  their  own  particular  kinds 
of  work  and  the  practice  of  it,  have  brought  each  a single  subject 
to  the  highest  perfection.  But  this  is  in  point  of  fact  not  realized. 

13.  For  an  architect  ought  not  to  be  and  cannot  be  such  a 
philologian  as  was  Aristarchus,  although  not  illiterate;  nor  a 
musician  like  Aristoxenus,  though  not  absolutely  ignorant  of 
music;  nor  a painter  like  Apelles,  though  not  unskilful  in  draw- 
ing; nor  a sculptor  such  as  was  Myron  or  Polyclitus,  though  not 
unacquainted  with  the  plastic  art;  nor  again  a physician  like 
Hippocrates,  though  not  ignorant  of  medicine;  nor  in  the  other 
sciences  need  he  excel  in  each,  though  he  should  not  be  unskilful 
in  them.  For,  in  the  midst  of  all  this  great  variety  of  subjects,  an 
individual  cannot  attain  to  perfection  in  each,  because  it  is 
scarcely  in  his  power  to  take  in  and  comprehend  the  general 
theories  of  them. 

14.  Still,  it  is  not  architects  alone  that  cannot  in  all  matters 
reach  perfection,  but  even  men  who  individually  practise  spe- 
cialties in  the  arts  do  not  all  attain  to  the  highest  point  of  merit. 
Therefore,  if  among  artists  working  each  in  a single  field  not  all, 
but  only  a few  in  an  entire  generation  acquire  fame,  and  that  with 
difficulty,  how  can  an  architect,  who  has  to  be  skilful  in  many 
arts,  accomplish  not  merely  the  feat  — in  itself  a great  marvel  — 
of  being  deficient  in  none  of  them,  but  also  that  of  surpassing 
all  those  artists  who  have  devoted  themselves  with  unremitting 
industry  to  single  fields? 

15.  It  appears,  then,  that  Pytheos  made  a mistake  by  not  ob- 
serving that  the  arts  are  each  composed  of  two  things,  the  actual 
work  and  the  theory  of  it.  One  of  these,  the  doing  of  the  work,  is 


12 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


proper  to  men  trained  in  the  individual  subject,  while  the  other, 
the  theory,  is  common  to  all  scholars : for  example,  to  physicians 
and  musicians  the  rhythmical  beat  of  the  pulse  and  its  metrical 
movement.  But  if  there  is  a wound  to  be  healed  or  a sick  man  to 
be  saved  from  danger,  the  musician  will  not  call,  for  the  business 
will  be  appropriate  to  the  physician.  So  in  the  case  of  a musical 
instrument,  not  the  physician  but  the  musician  will  be  the  man  to 
tune  it  so  that  the  ears  may  find  their  due  pleasure  in  its  strains. 

16.  Astronomers  likewise  have  a common  ground  for  discus- 
sion with  musicians  in  the  harmony  of  the  stars  and  musical  con- 
cords in  tetrads  and  triads  of  the  fourth  and  the  fifth,  and  with 
geometricians  in  the  subject  of  vision  (in  Greek  X070?  otttucos)  ; 
and  in  all  other  sciences  many  points,  perhaps  all,  are  common  so 
far  as  the  discussion  of  them  is  concerned.  But  the  actual  under- 
taking of  works  which  are  brought  to  perfection  by  the  hand  and 
its  manipulation  is  the  function  of  those  who  have  been  specially 
trained  to  deal  with  a single  art.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  he 
has  done  enough  and  to  spare  who  in  each  subject  possesses  a 
fairly  good  knowledge  of  those  parts,  with  their  principles,  which 
are  indispensable  for  architecture,  so  that  if  he  is  required  to  pass 
judgement  and  to  express  approval  in  the  case  of  those  things  or 
arts,  he  may  not  be  found  wanting.  As  for  men  upon  whom 
nature  has  bestowed  so  much  ingenuity,  acuteness,  and  memory 
that  they  are  able  to  have  a thorough  knowledge  of  geometry, 
astronomy,  music,  and  the  other  arts,  they  go  beyond  the  func- 
tions of  architects  and  become  pure  mathematicians.  Hence  they 
can  readily  take  up  positions  against  those  arts  because  many  are 
the  artistic  weapons  with  which  they  are  armed.  Such  men,  how- 
ever, are  rarely  found,  but  there  have  been  such  at  times;  for 
example,  Aristarchus  of  Samos,  Philolaus  and  Archytas  of 
Tarentum,  Apollonius  of  Perga,  Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene,  and 
among  Syracusans  Archimedes  and  Scopinas,  who  through 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  discovered,  expounded,  and 
left  to  posterity  many  things  in  connexion  with  mechanics  and 
with  sundials. 


Chap.  II]  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES 


13 


17.  Since,  therefore,  the  possession  of  such  talents  due  to 
natural  capacity  is  not  vouchsafed  at  random  to  entire  nations, 
but  only  to  a few  great  men;  since,  moreover,  the  function  of  the 
architect  requires  a training  in  all  the  departments  of  learning; 
and  finally,  since  reason,  on  account  of  the  wide  extent  of  the  sub- 
ject, concedes  that  he  may  possess  not  the  highest  but  not  even 
necessarily  a moderate  knowledge  of  the  subjects  of  study,  I 
request,  Caesar,  both  of  you  and  of  those  who  may  read  the  said 
books,  that  if  anything  is  set  forth  with  too  little  regard  for  gram- 
matical rule,  it  may  be  pardoned.  For  it  is  not  as  a very  great 
philosopher,  nor  as  an  eloquent  rhetorician,  nor  as  a grammarian 
trained  in  the  highest  principles  of  his  art,  that  I have  striven  to 
write  this  work,  but  as  an  architect  who  has  had  only  a dip  into 
those  studies.  Still,  as  regards  the  efficacy  of  the  art  and  the 
theories  of  it,  I promise  and  expect  that  in  these  volumes  I shall 
undoubtedly  show  myself  of  very  considerable  importance  not 
only  to  builders  but  also  to  all  scholars. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

1.  Architecture  depends  on  Order  (in  Greek  ragis),  Ar- 
rangement (in  Greek  hiaOeavs),  Eurythmy,  Symmetry,  Propriety, 
and  Economy  (in  Greek  ol/covofi(a)i 

2.  Order  gives  due  measure  to  the  members  of  a work  con- 
sidered separately,  and  symmetrical  agreement  to  the  proportions 
of  the  whole.  It  is  an  adjustment  according  to  quantity  (in 
Greek  n j-oo-ot???).  By  this  I mean  the  selection  of  modules  from 
the  members  of  the  work  itself  and,  starting  from  these  individual 
parts  of  members,  constructing  the  whole  work  to  correspond. 
Arrangement  includes  the  putting  of  things  in  their  proper 
places  and  the  elegance  of  effect  which  is  due  to  adjustments 
appropriate  to  the  character  of  the  work.  Its  forms  of  expression 
(in  Greek  IhiaC)  are  these:  groundplan,  elevation,  and  perspec- 


14 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


live.  A groundplan  is  made  by  the  proper  successive  use  of  com- 
passes and  rule,  through  which  we  get  outlines  for  the  plane  sur- 
faces of  buildings.  An  elevation  is  a picture  of  the  front  of  a 
building,  set  upright  and  properly  drawn  in  the  proportions  of  the 
contemplated  work.  Perspective  is  the  method  of  sketching  a 
front  with  the  sides  withdrawing  into  the  background,  the  lines 
all  meeting  in  the  centre  of  a circle.  All  three  come  of  reflexion 
and  invention.  Reflexion  is  careful  and  laborious  thought,  and 
watchful  attention  directed  to  the  agreeable  effect  of  one’s  plan. 
Invention,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  solving  of  intricate  problems 
and  the  discovery  of  new  principles  by  means  of  brilliancy  and 
versatility.  These  are  the  departments  belonging  under  Arrange- 
ment. 

3.  Eurythmy  is  beauty  and  fitness  in  the  adjustments  of  the 
members.  This  is  found  when  the  members  of  a work  are  of  a 
height  suited  to  their  breadth,  of  a breadth  suited  to  their  length, 
and,  in  a word,  when  they  all  correspond  symmetrically. 

4.  Symmetry  is  a proper  agreement  between  the  members  of 
the  work  itself,  and  relation  between  the  different  parts  and  the 
whole  general  scheme,  in  accordance  with  a certain  part  selected 
as  standard.  Thus  in  the  human  body  there  is  a kind  of  sym- 
metrical harmony  between  forearm,  foot,  palm,  finger,  and  other 
small  parts;  and  so  it  is  with  perfect  buildings.  In  the  case  of 
temples,  symmetry  may  be  calculated  from  the  thickness  of  a 
column,  from  a triglyph,  or  even  from  a module;  in  the  ballista, 
from  the  hole  or  from  what  the  Greeks  call  the  7repiTp7jTo<;;  in  a 
ship,  from  the  space  between  the  tholepins  ( hiairir)^p,a ) ; and  in 
other  things,  from  various  members. 

5.  Propriety  is  that  perfection  of  style  which  comes  when  a 
work  is  authoritatively  constructed  on  approved  principles.  It 
arises  from  prescription  (Greek  OepLaTiapLw),  from  usage,  or 
from  nature.  From  prescription,  in  the  case  of  hypaethral  edi- 
fices, open  to  the  sky,  in  honour  of  Jupiter  Lightning,  the  Heaven, 
the  Sun,  or  the  Moon : for  these  are  gods  whose  semblances  and 
manifestations  we  behold  before  our  very  eyes  in  the  sky  when  it 


Chap.  II] 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES 


15 


is  cloudless  and  bright.  The  temples  of  Minerva,  Mars,  and  Her- 
cules, will  be  Doric,  since  the  virile  strength  of  these  gods  makes 
daintiness  entirely  inappropriate  to  their  houses.  In  temples  to 
Venus,  Flora,  Proserpine,  Spring- Water,  and  the  Nymphs,  the 
Corinthian  order  will  be  found  to  have  peculiar  significance,  be- 
cause these  are  delicate  divinities  and  so  its  rather  slender  out- 
lines, its  flowers,  leaves,  and  ornamental  volutes  will  lend  propriety 
where  it  is  due.  The  construction  of  temples  of  the  Ionic  order  to 
Juno,  Diana,  Father  Bacchus,  and  the  other  gods  of  that  kind, 
will  be  in  keeping  with  the  middle  position  which  they  hold;  for 
the  building  of  such  will  be  an  appropriate  combination  of  the 
severity  of  the  Doric  and  the  delicacy  of  the  Corinthian. 

6.  Propriety  arises  from  usage  when  buildings  having  magnif- 
icent interiors  are  provided  with  elegant  entrance-courts  to  cor- 
respond; for  there  will  be  no  propriety  in  the  spectacle  of  an  ele- 
gant interior  approached  by  a low,  mean  entrance.  Or,  if  dentils 
be  carved  in  the  cornice  of  the  Doric  entablature  or  triglyphs  rep- 
resented in  the  Ionic  entablature  over  the  cushion-shaped  capi- 
tals of  the  columns,  the  effect  will  be  spoilt  by  the  transfer  of 
the  peculiarities  of  the  one  order  of  building  to  the  other,  the 
usage  in  each  class  having  been  fixed  long  ago. 

7.  Finally,  propriety  will  be  due  to  natural  causes  if,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  case  of  all  sacred  precincts  we  select  very  healthy 
neighbourhoods  with  suitable  springs  of  water  in  the  places  where 
the  fanes  are  to  be  built,  particularly  in  the  case  of  those  to  Aes- 
culapius and  to  Health,  gods  by  whose  healing  powers  great  num- 
bers of  the  sick  are  apparently  cured.  For  when  their  diseased 
bodies  are  transferred  from  an  unhealthy  to  a healthy  spot,  and 
treated  with  waters  from  health-giving  springs,  they  will  the 
more  speedily  grow  well.  The  result  will  be  that  the  divinity  will 
stand  in  higher  esteem  and  find  his  dignity  increased,  all  owing 
to  the  nature  of  his  site.  There  will  also  be  natural  propriety  in 
using  an  eastern  light  for  bedrooms  and  libraries,  a western  light 
in  winter  for  baths  and  winter  apartments,  and  a northern  light 
for  picture  galleries  and  other  places  in  which  a steady  light  is 


16 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


needed;  for  that  quarter  of  the  sky  grows  neither  light  nor  dark 
with  the  course  of  the  sun,  but  remains  steady  and  unshifting  all 
day  long. 

8.  Economy  denotes  the  proper  management  of  materials  and 
of  site,  as  well  as  a thrifty  balancing  of  cost  and  common  sense  in 
the  construction  of  works.  This  will  be  observed  if,  in  the  first 
place,  the  architect  does  not  demand  things  which  cannot  be 
found  or  made  ready  without  great  expense.  For  example:  it  is 
not  everywhere  that  there  is  plenty  of  pitsand,  rubble,  fir,  clear 
fir,  and  marble,  since  they  are  produced  in  different  places  and  to 
assemble  them  is  difficult  and  costly.  Where  there  is  no  pitsand, 
we  must  use  the  kinds  washed  up  by  rivers  or  by  the  sea;  the  lack 
of  fir  and  clear  fir  may  be  evaded  by  using  cypress,  poplar,  elm, 
or  pine;  and  other  problems  we  must  solve  in  similar  ways. 

9.  A second  stage  in  Economy  is  reached  when  we  have  to  plan 
the  different  kinds  of  dwellings  suitable  for  ordinary  household- 
ers, for  great  wealth,  or  for  the  high  position  of  the  statesman.  A 
house  in  town  obviously  calls  for  one  form  of  construction;  that 
into  which  stream  the  products  of  country  estates  requires  an- 
other; this  will  not  be  the  same  in  the  case  of  money-lenders  and 
still  different  for  the  opulent  and  luxurious;  for  the  powers  under 
whose  deliberations  the  commonwealth  is  guided  dwellings  are  to 
be  provided  according  to  their  special  needs:  and,  in  a word,  the 
proper  form  of  economy  must  be  observed  in  building  houses  for 
each  and  every  class. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  DEPARTMENTS  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

1.  There  are  three  departments  of  architecture:  the  art  of 
building,  the  making  of  time-pieces,  and  the  construction  of  ma- 
chinery. Building  is,  in  its  turn,  divided  into  two  parts,  of  which 
the  first  is  the  construction  of  fortified  towns  and  of  works  for 
general  use  in  public  places,  and  the  second  is  the  putting  up  of 
structures  for  private  individuals.  There  are  three  classes  of  pub- 


Chap.  IV] 


THE  SITE  OF  A CITY 


17 


lie  buildings : the  first  for  defensive,  the  second  for  religious,  and 
the  third  for  utilitarian  purposes.  Under  defence  comes  the  plan- 
ning of  walls,  towers,  and  gates,  permanent  devices  for  resistance 
against  hostile  attacks;  under  religion,  the  erection  of  fanes  and 
temples  to  the  immortal  gods;  under  utility,  the  provision  of 
meeting  places  for  public  use,  such  as  harbours,  markets,  colon- 
nades, baths,  theatres,  promenades,  and  all  other  similar  arrange- 
ments in  public  places. 

2.  All  these  must  be  built  with  due  reference  to  durability,  con- 
venience, and  beauty.  Durability  will  be  assured  when  founda- 
tions are  carried  down  to  the  solid  ground  and  materials  wisely 
and  liberally  selected;  convenience,  when  the  arrangement  of  the 
apartments  is  faultless  and  presents  no  hindrance  to  use,  and 
when  each  class  of  building  is  assigned  to  its  suitable  and  appro- 
priate exposure;  and  beauty,  when  the  appearance  of  the  work  is 
pleasing  and  in  good  taste,  and  when  its  members  are  in  due  pro- 
portion according  to  correct  principles  of  symmetry. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  SITE  OF  A CITY 

1.  For  fortified  towns  the  following  general  principles  are  to 
be  observed.  First  comes  the  choice  of  a very  healthy  site.  Such 
a site  will  be  high,  neither  misty  nor  frosty,  and  in  a climate  nei- 
ther hot  nor  cold,  but  temperate;  further,  without  marshes  in  the 
neighbourhood.  For  when  the  morning  breezes  blow  toward  the 
town  at  sunrise,  if  they  bring  with  them  mists  from  marshes  and, 
mingled  with  the  mist,  the  poisonous  breath  of  the  creatures  of 
the  marshes  to  be  wafted  into  the  bodies  of  the  inhabitants,  they 
will  make  the  site  unhealthy.  Again,  if  the  town  is  on  the  coast 
with  a southern  or  western  exposure,  it  will  not  be  healthy,  be- 
cause in  summer  the  southern  sky  grows  hot  at  sunrise  and  is 
fiery  at  noon,  while  a western  exposure  grows  warm  after  sunrise, 
is  hot  at  noon,  and  at  evening  all  aglow. 


18 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


2.  These  variations  in  heat  and  the  subsequent  cooling  off  are 
harmful  to  the  people  living  on  such  sites.  The  same  conclusion 
may  be  reached  in  the  case  of  inanimate  things.  For  instance,  no- 
body draws  the  light  for  covered  wine  rooms  from  the  south  or 
west,  but  rather  from  the  north,  since  that  quarter  is  never  sub- 
ject to  change  but  is  always  constant  and  unshifting.  So  it  is  with 
granaries:  grain  exposed  to  the  sun’s  course  soon  loses  its  good 
quality,  and  provisions  and  fruit,  unless  stored  in  a place  unex- 
posed to  the  sun’s  course,  do  not  keep  long. 

3.  For  heat  is  a universal  solvent,  melting  out  of  things  their 
power  of  resistance,  and  sucking  away  and  removing  their  natural 
strength  with  its  fiery  exhalations  so  that  they  grow  soft,  and 
hence  weak,  under  its  glow.  We  see  this  in  the  case  of  iron  which, 
however  hard  it  may  naturally  be,  yet  when  heated  thoroughly  in 
a furnace  fire  can  be  easily  worked  into  any  kind  of  shape,  and 
still,  if  cooled  while  it  is  soft  and  white  hot,  it  hardens  again  with 
a mere  dip  into  cold  water  and  takes  on  its  former  quality. 

4.  We  may  also  recognize  the  truth  of  this  from  the  fact  that  in 
summer  the  heat  makes  everybody  weak,  not  only  in  unhealthy 
but  even  in  healthy  places,  and  that  in  winter  even  the  most  un- 
healthy districts  are  much  healthier  because  they  are  given  a so- 
lidity by  the  cooling  off.  Similarly,  persons  removed  from  cold 
countries  to  hot  cannot  endure  it  but  waste  away;  whereas  those 
who  pass  from  hot  places  to  the  cold  regions  of  the  north,  not  only 
do  not  suffer  in  health  from  the  change  of  residence  but  even  gain 
by  it. 

5.  It  appears,  then,  that  in  founding  towns  we  must  beware  of 
districts  from  which  hot  winds  can  spread  abroad  over  the  inhab- 
itants. For  while  all  bodies  are  composed  of  the  four  elements 
(in  Greek  cn-o^eta),  that  is,  of  heat,  moisture,  the  earthy,  and 
air,  yet  there  are  mixtures  according  to  natural  temperament 
which  make  up  the  natures  of  all  the  different  animals  of  the 
world,  each  after  its  kind. 

6.  Therefore,  if  one  of  these  elements,  heat,  becomes  predom- 
inant in  any  body  whatsoever,  it  destroys  and  dissolves  all  the 


Chap.  IV] 


THE  SITE  OF  A CITY 


19 


others  with  its  violence.  This  defect  may  be  due  to  violent  heat 
from  certain  quarters  of  the  sky,  pouring  into  the  open  pores  in 
too  great  proportion  to  admit  of  a mixture  suited  to  the  natural 
temperament  of  the  body  in  question.  Again,  if  too  much  mois- 
ture enters  the  channels  of  a body,  and  thus  introduces  dispropor- 
tion, the  other  elements,  adulterated  by  the  liquid,  are  impaired, 
and  the  virtues  of  the  mixture  dissolved.  This  defect,  in  turn, 
may  arise  from  the  cooling  properties  of  moist  winds  and  breezes 
blowing  upon  the  body.  In  the  same  way,  increase  or  diminution 
of  the  proportion  of  air  or  of  the  earthy  which  is  natural  to 
the  body  may  enfeeble  the  other  elements;  the  predominance 
of  the  earthy  being  due  to  overmuch  food,  that  of  air  to  a heavy 
atmosphere. 

7.  If  one  wishes  a more  accurate  understanding  of  all  this,  he 
need  only  consider  and  observe  the  natures  of  birds,  fishes,  and 
land  animals,  and  he  will  thus  come  to  reflect  upon  distinctions  of 
temperament.  One  form  of  mixture  is  proper  to  birds,  another  to 
fishes,  and  a far  different  form  to  land  animals.  Winged  creatures 
have  less  of  the  earthy,  less  moisture,  heat  in  moderation,  air  in 
large  amount.  Being  made  up,  therefore,  of  the  lighter  elements, 
they  can  more  readily  soar  away  into  the  air.  Fish,  with  their 
aquatic  nature,  being  moderately  supplied  with  heat  and  made  up 
in  great  part  of  air  and  the  earthy,  with  as  little  of  moisture  as 
possible,  can  more  easily  exist  in  moisture  for  the  very  reason 
that  they  have  less  of  it  than  of  the  other  elements  in  their  bodies; 
and  so,  when  they  are  drawn  to  land,  they  leave  life  and  water  at 
the  same  moment.  Similarly,  the  land  animals,  being  moderately 
supplied  with  the  elements  of  air  and  heat,  and  having  less  of  the 
earthy  and  a great  deal  of  moisture,  cannot  long  continue  alive  in 
the  water,  because  their  portion  of  moisture  is  already  abundant. 

8.  Therefore,  if  all  this  is  as  we  have  explained,  our  reason 
showing  us  that  the  bodies  of  animals  are  made  up  of  the  ele- 
ments, and  these  bodies,  as  we  believe,  giving  way  and  breaking 
up  as  a result  of  excess  or  deficiency  in  this  or  that  element,  we 
cannot  but  believe  that  we  must  take  great  care  to  select  a very 


VITRUVIUS 


20 


[Book  I 


temperate  climate  for  the  site  of  our  city,  since  healthfulness  is, 
as  we  have  said,  the  first  requisite. 

9.  I cannot  too  strongly  insist  upon  the  need  of  a return  to  the 
method  of  old  times.  Our  ancestors,  when  about  to  build  a town 
or  an  army  post,  sacrificed  some  of  the  cattle  that  were  wont  to 
feed  on  the  site  proposed  and  examined  their  livers.  If  the  livers 
of  the  first  victims  were  dark-coloured  or  abnormal,  they  sacri- 
ficed others,  to  see  whether  the  fault  was  due  to  disease  or  their 
food.  They  never  began  to  build  defensive  works  in  a place  until 
after  they  had  made  many  such  trials  and  satisfied  themselves 
that  good  water  and  food  had  made  the  liver  sound  and  firm.  If 
they  continued  to  find  it  abnormal,  they  argued  from  this  that  the 
food  and  water  supply  found  in  such  a place  would  be  just  as  un- 
healthy for  man,  and  so  they  moved  away  and  changed  to  an- 
other neighbourhood,  healthfulness  being  their  chief  object. 

10.  That  pasturage  and  food  may  indicate  the  healthful  quali- 
ties of  a site  is  a fact  which  can  be  observed  and  investigated  in 
the  case  of  certain  pastures  in  Crete,  on  each  side  of  the  river 
Pothereus,  which  separates  the  two  Cretan  states  of  Gnosus  and 
Gortyna.  There  are  cattle  at  pasture  on  the  right  and  left  banks 
of  that  river,  but  while  the  cattle  that  feed  near  Gnosus  have  the 
usual  spleen,  those  on  the  other  side  near  Gortyna  have  no  per- 
ceptible spleen.  On  investigating  the  subject,  physicians  discov- 
ered on  this  side  a kind  of  herb  which  the  cattle  chew  and  thus 
make  their  spleen  small.  The  herb  is  therefore  gathered  and  used 
as  a medicine  for  the  cure  of  splenetic  people.  The  Cretans  call  it 
aairXrjvov . From  food  and  water,  then,  we  may  learn  whether 
sites  are  naturally  unhealthy  or  healthy. 

11.  If  the  walled  town  is  built  among  the  marshes  themselves, 
provided  they  are  by  the  sea,  with  a northern  or  north-eastern 
exposure,  and  are  above  the  level  of  the  seashore,  the  site  will  be 
reasonable  enough.  For  ditches  can  be  dug  to  let  out  the  water  to 
the  shore,  and  also  in  times  of  storms  the  sea  swells  and  comes 
backing  up  into  the  marshes,  where  its  bitter  blend  prevents  the 
reproductions  of  the  usual  marsh  creatures,  while  any  that  swim 


Chap.  V] 


THE  CITY  WALLS 


down  from  the  higher  levels  to  the  shore  are  killed  at  once  by  the 
saltness  to  which  they  are  unused.  An  instance  of  this  may  be 
found  in  the  Gallic  marshes  surrounding  Altino,  Ravenna,  Aqui- 
leia,  and  other  towns  in  places  of  the  kind,  close  by  marshes.  They 
are  marvellously  healthy,  for  the  reasons  which  I have  given. 

12.  But  marshes  that  are  stagnant  and  have  no  outlets  either 
by  rivers  or  ditches,  like  the  Pomptine  marshes,  merely  putrefy 
as  they  stand,  emitting  heavy,  unhealthy  vapours.  A case  of  a 
town  built  in  such  a spot  was  Old  Salpia  in  Apulia,  founded  by 
Diomede  on  his  way  back  from  Troy,  or,  according  to  some  writ- 
ers, by  Elpias  of  Rhodes.  Year  after  year  there  was  sickness,  un- 
til finally  the  suffering  inhabitants  came  with  a public  petition  to 
Marcus  Hostilius  and  got  him  to  agree  to  seek  and  find  them  a 
proper  place  to  which  to  remove  their  city.  Without  delay  he 
made  the  most  skilful  investigations,  and  at  once  purchased  an 
estate  near  the  sea  in  a healthy  place,  and  asked  the  Senate  and 
Roman  people  for  permission  to  remove  the  town.  He  constructed 
the  walls  and  laid  out  the  house  lots,  granting  one  to  each  citizen 
for  a mere  trifle.  This  done,  he  cut  an  opening  from  a lake  into 
the  sea,  and  thus  made  of  the  lake  a harbour  for  the  town.  The  re- 
sult is  that  now  the  people  of  Salpia  live  on  a healthy  site  and  at  a 
distance  of  only  four  miles  from  the  old  town. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  CITY  WALLS 

1.  After  insuring  on  these  principles  the  healthfulness  of  the 
future  city,  and  selecting  a neighbourhood  that  can  supply  plenty 
of  food  stuffs  to  maintain  the  community,  with  good  roads  or  else 
convenient  rivers  or  seaports  affording  easy  means  of  transport 
to  the  city,  the  next  thing  to  do  is  to  lay  the  foundations  for  the 
towers  and  walls.  Dig  down  to  solid  bottom,  if  it  can  be  found, 
and  lay  them  therein,  going  as  deep  as  the  magnitude  of  the  pro- 
posed work  seems  to  require.  They  should  be  much  thicker  than 


VITRUVIUS 


22 


[Book  I 


the  part  of  the  walls  that  will  appear  above  ground,  and  their 
structure  should  be  as  solid  as  it  can  possibly  be  laid. 

2.  The  towers  must  be  projected  beyond  the  line  of  wall,  so 
that  an  enemy  wishing  to  approach  the  wall  to  carry  it  by  assault 
may  be  exposed  to  the  fire  of  missiles  on  his  open  flank  from  the 
towers  on  his  right  and  left.  Special  pains  should  be  taken  that 
there  be  no  easy  avenue  by  which  to  storm  the  wall.  The  roads 
should  be  encompassed  at  steep  points,  and  planned  so  as  to  ap- 
proach the  gates,  not  in  a straight  line,  but  from  the  right  to  the 
left;  for  as  a result  of  this,  the  right  hand  side  of  the  assailants,  un- 
protected by  their  shields,  will  be  next  the  wall.  Towns  should 
be  laid  out  not  as  an  exact  square  nor  with  salient  angles,  but  in 
circular  form,  to  give  a view  of  the  enemy  from  many  points.  De- 
fence is  difficult  where  there  are  salient  angles,  because  the  angle 
protects  the  enemy  rather  than  the  inhabitants. 

3.  The  thickness  of  the  wall  should,  in  my  opinion,  be  such 
that  armed  men  meeting  on  top  of  it  may  pass  one  another  with- 
out interference.  In  the  thickness  there  should  be  set  a very  close 
succession  of  ties  made  of  charred  olive  wood,  binding  the  two 
faces  of  the  wall  together  like  pins,  to  give  it  lasting  endurance. 
For  that  is  a material  which  neither  decay,  nor  the  weather,  nor 
time  can  harm,  but  even  though  buried  in  the  earth  or  set  in  the 
water  it  keeps  sound  and  useful  forever.  And  so  not  only  city 
walls  but  substructures  in  general  and  all  walls  that  require  a 
thickness  like  that  of  a city  wall,  will  be  long  in  falling  to  decay  if 
tied  in  this  manner. 

4.  The  towers  should  be  set  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  a 
bowshot  apart,  so  that  in  case  of  an  assault  upon  any  one  of  them, 
the  enemy  may  be  repulsed  with  scorpiones  and  other  means  of 
hurling  missiles  from  the  towers  to  the  right  and  left.  Opposite 
the  inner  side  of  every  tower  the  wall  should  be  interrupted  for  a 
space  the  width  of  the  tower,  and  have  only  a wooden  flooring 
across,  leading  to  the  interior  of  the  tower  but  not  firmly  nailed. 
This  is  to  be  cut  away  by  the  defenders  in  case  the  enemy  gets 
possession  of  any  portion  of  the  wall;  and  if  the  work  is  quickly 


THE  CITY  WALLS 


Chap.  V] 


23 


done,  the  enemy  will  not  be  able  to  make  his  way  to  the  other 
towers  and  the  rest  of  the  wall  unless  he  is  ready  to  face  a fall. 

5.  The  towers  themselves  must  be  either  round  or  polygonal. 
Square  towers  are  sooner  shattered  by  military  engines,  for  the 


kmfmmm 



\ i i • i 

1,  , 1 . l-r.l.,-l  1 

"l  i t i 

i . i.'-C-C.  I 

1 'T  | -p- 

i i i Og 

i 1 t nn  r 

,1  i..p:  "T.. . g 

-L  i ' ' i i n 

i i 1 t r~r 

r~T~  i i 

— i ' iii 

tVtYt 

i i it 

i i 

...1  1 .I..1-ZI 

- i l -r,--rL~r 

i 1 i T~ 

T T X X 

T r I TT 

I I Cf 

II  If 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  WALLS 
(From  the  edition  of  Vitruvius  by  Fra  Giocondo,  Venice,  1511) 


battering  rams  pound  their  angles  to  pieces;  but  in  the  case  of 
round  towers  they  can  do  no  harm,  being  engaged,  as  it  were,  in 
driving  wedges  to  their  centre.  The  system  of  fortification  by 
wall  and  towers  may  be  made  safest  by  the  addition  of  earthen 
ramparts,  for  neither  rams,  nor  mining,  nor  other  engineering  de- 
vices can  do  them  any  harm. 

6.  The  rampart  form  of  defence,  however,  is  not  required  in  all 
places,  but  only  where  outside  the  wall  there  is  high  ground  from 


u 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


which  an  assault  on  the  fortifications  may  be  made  over  a level 
space  lying  between.  In  places  of  this  kind  we  must  first  make 
very  wide,  deep  ditches;  next  sink  foundations  for  a wall  in  the 
bed  of  the  ditch  and  build  them  thick  enough  to  support  an  earth- 
work with  ease. 

7.  Then  within  this  substructure  lay  a second  foundation,  far 
enough  inside  the  first  to  leave  ample  room  for  cohorts  in  line  of 
battle  to  take  position  on  the  broad  top  of  the  rampart  for  its  de- 
fence. Having  laid  these  two  foundations  at  this  distance  from 
one  another,  build  cross  walls  between  them,  uniting  the  outer 
and  inner  foundation,  in  a comb-like  arrangement,  set  like  the 
teeth  of  a saw.  With  this  form  of  construction,  the  enormous 
burden  of  earth  will  be  distributed  into  small  bodies,  and  will  not 
lie  with  all  its  weight  in  one  crushing  mass  so  as  to  thrust  out  the 
substructures. 

8.  With  regard  to  the  material  of  which  the  actual  wall  should 
be  constructed  or  finished,  there  can  be  no  definite  prescription, 
because  we  cannot  obtain  in  all  places  the  supplies  that  we  desire. 
Dimension  stone,  flint,  rubble,  burnt  or  unburnt  brick,  — use 
them  as  you  find  them.  For  it  is  not  every  neighbourhood  or  par- 
ticular locality  that  can  have  a wall  built  of  burnt  brick  like  that 
at  Babylon,  where  there  was  plenty  of  asphalt  to  take  the  place 
of  lime  and  sand,  and  yet  possibly  each  may  be  provided  with 
materials  of  equal  usefulness  so  that  out  of  them  a faultless  wall 
may  be  built  to  last  forever. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  DIRECTIONS  OF  THE  STREETS;  WITH  REMARKS  ON  THE  WINDS 

1.  The  town  being  fortified,  the  next  step  is  the  apportionment 
of  house  lots  within  the  wall  and  the  laying  out  of  streets  and 
alleys  with  regard  to  climatic  conditions.  They  will  be  properly 
laid  out  if  foresight  is  employed  to  exclude  the  winds  from  the 
alleys.  Cold  winds  are  disagreeable,  hot  winds  enervating,  moist 


25 


#- 


CHAP.  VI]  DIRECTIONS  OF  THE  STREETS 


winds  unhealthy.  We  must,  therefore,  avoid  mistakes  in  this  mat- 
ter and  beware  of  the  common  experience  of  many  communities. 
For  example,  Mytilene  in  the  island  of  Lesbos  is  a town  built  with 
magnificence  and  good  taste,  but  its  position  shows  a lack  of  fore- 
sight. In  that  community  when  the  wind  is  south,  the  people  fall 
ill;  when  it  is  northwest,  it  sets  them  coughing;  wTith  a north  wind 
they  do  indeed  recover  but  cannot  stand  about  in  the  alleys  and 
streets,  owing  to  the  severe  cold. 

2.  Wind  is  a flowing  wave  of  air,  moving  hither  and  thither  in- 
definitely. It  is  produced  when  heat  meets  moisture,  the  rush  of 
heat  generating  a mighty  current  of  air.  That  this  is  the  fact  we 
may  learn  from  bronze  eolipiles,  and  thus  by  means  of  a scientific 
invention  discover  a divine  truth  lurking  in  the  laws  of  the  heav- 
ens. Eolipiles  are  hollow  bronze  balls,  with  a very  small  opening 
through  which  water  is  poured  into  them.  Set  before  a fire,  not  a 
breath  issues  from  them  before  they  get  warm ; but  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  boil,  out  comes  a strong  blast  due  to  the  fire.  Thus  from 
this  slight  and  very  short  experiment  we  may  understand  and 
judge  of  the  mighty  and  wonderful  laws  of  the  heavens  and  the 
nature  of  winds. 

3.  By  shutting  out  the  winds  from  our  dwellings,  therefore,  we 
shall  not  only  make  the  place  healthful  for  people  who  are  well, 
but  also  in  the  case  of  diseases  due  perhaps  to  unfavourable 
situations  elsewhere,  the  patients,  who  in  other  healthy  places 
might  be  cured  by  a different  form  of  treatment,  will  here  be 
more  quickly  cured  by  the  mildness  that  comes  from  the  shut- 
ting out  of  the  winds.  The  diseases  which  are  hard  to  cure  in 
neighbourhoods  such  as  those  to  which  I have  referred  above  are 
catarrh,  hoarseness,  coughs,  pleurisy,  consumption,  spitting  of 
blood,  and  all  others  that  are  cured  not  by  lowering  the  system 
but  by  building  it  up.  They  are  hard  to  cure,  first,  because  they 
are  originally  due  to  chills;  secondly,  because  the  patient’s  system 
being  already  exhausted  by  disease,  the  air  there,  which  is  in  con- 
stant agitation  owing  to  winds  and  therefore  deteriorated,  takes 
all  the  sap  of  life  out  of  their  diseased  bodies  and  leaves  them  more 


26 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


meagre  every  day.  On  the  other  hand,  a mild,  thick  air,  without 
draughts  and  not  constantly  blowing  back  and  forth,  builds  up 
their  frames  by  its  unwavering  steadiness,  and  so  strengthens  and 
restores  people  who  are  afflicted  with  these  diseases. 

4.  Some  have  held  that  there  are  only  four  winds : Solanus  from 
due  east;  Auster  from  the  south;  Favonius  from  due  west;  Sep- 
ten  trio  from  the  north.  But  more  careful  investigators  tell  us  that 
there  are  eight.  Chief  among  such  was  Andronicus  of  Cyrrhus 
who  in  proof  built  the  marble  octagonal  tower  in  Athens.  On  the 
several  sides  of  the  octagon  he  executed  reliefs  representing  the 
several  winds,  each  facing  the  point  from  which  it  blows;  and  on 
top  of  the  tower  he  set  a conical  shaped  piece  of  marble  and  on 
this  a bronze  Triton  with  a rod  outstretched  in  its  right  hand.  It 
was  so  contrived  as  to  go  round  with  the  wind,  always  stopping 
to  face  the  breeze  and  holding  its  rod  as  a pointer  directly  over 
the  representation  of  the  wind  that  was  blowing. 

5.  Thus  Eurus  is  placed  to  the  southeast  between  Solanus  and 
Auster:  Africus  to  the  southwest  between  Auster  and  Favonius; 
Caurus,  or,  as  many  call  it,  Corus,  between  Favonius  and  Sep- 
tentrio;  and  Aquilo  between  Septentrio  and  Solanus.  Such,  then, 
appears  to  have  been  his  device,  including  the  numbers  and 
names  of  the  wind  and  indicating  the  directions  from  which  par- 
ticular winds  blow.  These  facts  being  thus  determined,  to  find 
the  directions  and  quarters  of  the  winds  your  method  of  proced- 
ure should  be  as  follows. 

6.  In  the  middle  of  the  city  place  a marble  amussium,  laying  it 
true  by  the  level,  or  else  let  the  spot  be  made  so  true  by  means  of 
rule  and  level  that  no  amussium  is  necessary.  In  the  very  centre  of 
that  spot  set  up  a bronze  gnomon  or  “shadow  tracker”  (in  Greek 
cnaa6r)pas).  At  about  the  fifth  hour  in  the  morning,  take  the 
end  of  the  shadow  cast  by  this  gnomon,  and  mark  it  with  a point. 
Then,  opening  your  compasses  to  this  point  which  marks  the 
length  of  the  gnomon’s  shadow,  describe  a circle  from  the  centre. 
In  the  afternoon  watch  the  shadow  of  your  gnomon  as  it  length- 
ens, and  when  it  once  more  touches  the  circumference  of  this 


THE  TOWER  OF  THE  WINDS  AT  ATHENS 


Chap.  VI]  DIRECTIONS  OF  THE  STREETS  27 

circle  and  the  shadow  in  the  afternoon  is  equal  in  length  to  that 
of  the  morning,  mark  it  with  a point. 

7.  From  these  two  points  describe  with  your  compasses  inter- 
secting arcs,  and  through  their  intersection  and  the  centre  let  a 
line  be  drawn  to  the  circumference  of  the  circle  to  give  us  the 
quarters  of  south  and  north.  Then,  using  a sixteenth  part  of  the 
entire  circumference  of  the  circle  as  a diameter,  describe  a circle 
with  its  centre  on  the  line  to  the  south,  at  the  point  where  it 
crosses  the  circumference,  and  put  points  to  the  right  and  left  on 
the  circumference  on  the  south  side,  repeating  the  process  on  the 
north  side.  From  the  four  points  thus  obtained  draw  lines  inter- 
secting the  centre  from  one  side  of  the  circumference  to  the  other. 
Thus  we  shall  have  an  eighth  part  of  the  circumference  set  out  for 
Auster  and  another  for  Septentrio.  The  rest  of  the  entire  circum- 
ference is  then  to  be  divided  into  three  equal  parts  on  each  side, 
and  thus  we  have  designed  a figure  equally  apportioned  among 
the  eight  winds.  Then  let  the  directions  of  your  streets  and  al- 
leys be  laid  down  on  the  lines  of  division  between  the  quarters  of 
two  winds. 

8.  On  this  principle  of  arrangement  the  disagreeable  force  of 
the  winds  will  be  shut  out  from  dwellings  and  lines  of  houses.  For 
if  the  streets  run  full  in  the  face  of  the  winds,  their  constant 
blasts  rushing  in  from  the  open  country,  and  then  confined  by 
narrow  alleys,  will  sweep  through  them  with  great  violence.  The 
lines  of  houses  must  therefore  be  directed  away  from  the  quarters 
from  which  the  winds  blow,  so  that  as  they  come  in  they  may 
strike  against  the  angles  of  the  blocks  and  their  force  thus  be  bro- 
ken and  dispersed. 

9.  Those  who  know  names  for  very  many  winds  will  perhaps 
be  surprised  at  our  setting  forth  that  there  are  only  eight.  Re- 
membering, however,  that  Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene,  employing 
mathematical  theories  and  geometrical  methods,  discovered  from 
the  course  of  the  sun,  the  shadows  cast  by  an  equinoctial  gnomon, 
and  the  inclination  of  the  heaven  that  the  circumference  of  the 
earth  is  two  hundred  and  fifty -two  thousand  stadia,  that  is,  thirty- 


28 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


one  million  five  hundred  thousand  paces,  and  observing  that  an 
eighth  part  of  this,  occupied  by  a wind,  is  three  million  nine  hun- 
dred and  thirty-seven  thousand  five  hundred  paces,  they  should 
not  be  surprised  to  find  that  a single  wind,  ranging  over  so  wide  a 
field,  is  subject  to  shifts  this  way  and  that,  leading  to  a variety  of 
breezes. 

10.  So  we  often  have  Leuconotus  and  Altanus  blowing  respect- 
ively to  the  right  and  left  of  Auster;  Libonotus  and  Subvesperus 
to  the  right  and  left  of  Africus;  Argestes,  and  at  certain  periods 
the  Etesiae,  on  either  side  of  Favonius;  Circias  and  Corus  on  the 
sides  of  Caurus;  Thracias  and  Gallicus  on  either  side  of  Sep  ten- 
trio;  Supernas  and  Caecias  to  the  right  and  left  of  Aquilo;  Carbas, 
and  at  a certain  period  the  Ornithiae,  on  either  side  of  Solanus; 
while  Eurocircias  and  Volturnus  blow  on  the  flanks  of  Eurus 
which  is  between  them.  There  are  also  many  other  names  for 
winds  derived  from  localities  or  from  the  squalls  which  sweep 
from  rivers  or  down  mountains. 

11.  Then,  too,  there  are  the  breezes  of  early  morning;  for  the 
sun  on  emerging  from  beneath  the  earth  strikes  humid  air  as  he 
returns,  and  as  he  goes  climbing  up  the  sky  he  spreads  it  out  be- 
fore him,  extracting  breezes  from  the  vapour  that  was  there  before 
the  dawn.  Those  that  still  blow  on  after  sunrise  are  classed  with 
Eurus,  and  hence  appears  to  come  the  Greek  name  evpos  as  the 
child  of  the  breezes,  and  the  word  for  “to-morrow,”  avptov , 
named  from  the  early  morning  breezes.  Some  people  do  indeed 
say  that  Eratosthenes  could  not  have  inferred  the  true  measure 
of  the  earth.  Whether  true  or  untrue,  it  cannot  affect  the  truth 
of  what  I have  written  on  the  fixing  of  the  quarters  from  which 
the  different  winds  blow. 

12.  If  he  was  wrong,  the  only  result  will  be  that  the  individual 
winds  may  blow,  not  with  the  scope  expected  from  his  measure- 
ment, but  with  powers  either  more  or  less  widely  extended.  For 
the  readier  understanding  of  these  topics,  since  I have  treated 
them  with  brevity,  it  has  seemed  best  to  me  to  give  two  figures, 
or,  as  the  Greeks  say,  cr^z-iara,  at  the  end  of  this  book : one  de- 


Chap.  VI]  DIRECTIONS  OF  THE  STREETS 


29 


signed  to  show  the  precise  quarters  from  which  the  winds  arise; 
the  other,  how  by  turning  the  directions  of  the  rows  of  houses  and 
the  streets  away  from  their  full  force,  we  may  avoid  unhealthy 
blasts.  Let  A be  the  centre  of  a plane  surface,  and  B the  point  to 


(From  the  edition  of  Vitruvius  by  Fra  Giocondo,  Venice,  1511) 


which  the  shadow  of  the  gnomon  reaches  in  the  morning.  Tak- 
ing A as  the  centre,  open  the  compasses  to  the  point  B,  which 
marks  the  shadow,  and  describe  a circle.  Put  the  gnomon  back 
where  it  was  before  and  wait  for  the  shadow  to  lessen  and  grow 
again  until  in  the  afternoon  it  is  equal  to  its  length  in  the  morn- 
ing, touching  the  circumference  at  the  point  C.  Then  from  the 


30 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


points  B and  C describe  with  the  compasses  two  arcs  intersect- 
ing at  D.  Next  draw  a line  from  the  point  of  intersection  D 
through  the  centre  of  the  circle  to  the  circumference  and  call  it 
E F.  This  line  will  show  where  the  south  and  north  lie. 

13.  Then  find  with  the  compasses  a sixteenth  part  of  the  entire 
circumference;  then  centre  the  compasses  on  the  point  E where 


5EPTE.NTR10 


the  line  to  the  south  touches  the  circumference,  and  set  off  the 
points  G and  H to  the  right  and  left  of  E.  Likewise  on  the  north 
side,  centre  the  compasses  on  the  circumference  at  the  point  F 
on  the  line  to  the  north,  and  set  off  the  points  I and  K to  the  right 
and  left;  then  draw  lines  through  the  centre  from  G to  K and 
from  H to  I.  Thus  the  space  from  G to  H will  belong  to  Auster 
and  the  south,  and  the  space  from  I to  K will  be  that  of  Septen- 
trio.  The  rest  of  the  circumference  is  to  be  divided  equally  into 
three  parts  on  the  right  and  three  on  the  left,  those  to  the  east  at 
the  points  L and  M,  those  to  the  west  at  the  points  N and  O. 


Chap,  vn]  SITES  FOR  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS 


31 


Finally,  intersecting  lines  are  to  be  drawn  from  M to  O and  from 
L to  N.  Thus  we  shall  have  the  circumference  divided  into  eight 
equal  spaces  for  the  winds.  The  figure  being  finished,  we  shall 
have  at  the  eight  different  divisions,  beginning  at  the  south,  the 
letter  G between  Eurus  and  Auster,  H between  Auster  and  Afri- 
cus,  N between  Africus  and  Favonius,  O between  Favonius  and 
Caurus,  K between  Caurus  and  Septentrio,  I between  Septen- 
trio  and  Aquilo,  L between  Aquilo  and  Solanus,  and  M between 
Solanus  and  Eurus.  This  done,  apply  a gnomon  to  these  eight 
divisions  and  thus  fix  the  directions  of  the  different  alleys. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  SITES  FOR  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS 

1.  Having  laid  out  the  alleys  and  determined  the  streets,  we 
have  next  to  treat  of  the  choice  of  building  sites  for  temples,  the 
forum,  and  all  other  public  places,  with  a view  to  general  conven- 
ience and  utility.  If  the  city  is  on  the  sea,  we  should  choose  ground 
close  to  the  harbour  as  the  place  where  the  forum  is  to  be  built; 
but  if  inland,  in  the  middle  of  the  town.  For  the  temples,  the 
sites  for  those  of  the  gods  under  whose  particular  protection  the 
state  is  thought  to  rest  and  for  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva, 
should  be  on  the  very  highest  point  commanding  a view  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  city.  Mercury  should  be  in  the  forum,  or,  like 
Isis  and  Serapis,  in  the  emporium:  Apollo  and  Father  Bacchus 
near  the  theatre:  Hercules  at  the  circus  in  communities  which 
have  no  gymnasia  nor  amphitheatres;  Mars  outside  the  city  but  at 
the  training  ground,  and  so  Venus,  but  at  the  harbour.  It  is  more- 
over shown  by  the  Etruscan  diviners  in  treatises  on  their  science 
that  the  fanes  of  Venus,  Vulcan,  and  Mars  should  be  situated  out- 
side the  walls,  in  order  that  the  young  men  and  married  women 
may  not  become  habituated  in  the  city  to  the  temptations  inci- 
dent to  the  worship  of  Venus,  and  that  buildings  may  be  free  from 
the  terror  of  fires  through  the  religious  rites  and  sacrifices  which 


32 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  I 


call  the  power  of  Vulcan  beyond  the  walls.  As  for  Mars,  when 
that  divinity  is  enshrined  outside  the  walls,  the  citizens  will 
never  take  up  arms  against  each  other,  and  he  will  defend  the 
city  from  its  enemies  and  save  it  from  danger  in  war. 

2.  Ceres  also  should  be  outside  the  city  in  a place  to  which  peo- 
ple need  never  go  except  for  the  purpose  of  sacrifice.  That  place 
should  be  under  the  protection  of  religion,  purity,  and  good  mor- 
als. Proper  sites  should  be  set  apart  for  the  precincts  of  the  other 
gods  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sacrifices  offered  to  them. 

The  principle  governing  the  actual  construction  of  temples  and 
their  symmetry  I shall  explain  in  my  third  and  fourth  books.  In 
the  second  I have  thought  it  best  to  give  an  account  of  the  ma- 
terials used  in  buildings  with  their  good  qualities  and  advantages, 
and  then  in  the  succeeding  books  to  describe  and  explain  the  pro- 
portions of  buildings,  their  arrangements,  and  the  different  forms 
of  symmetry. 


BOOK  II 


BOOK  II 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  Dinocrates,  an  architect  who  was  full  of  confidence  in  his 
own  ideas  and  skill,  set  out  from  Macedonia,  in  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander, to  go  to  the  army,  being  eager  to  win  the  approbation  of 
the  king.  He  took  with  him  from  his  country  letters  from  rela- 
tives and  friends  to  the  principal  military  men  and  officers  of  the 
court,  in  order  to  gain  access  to  them  more  readily.  Being  politely 
received  by  them,  he  asked  to  be  presented  to  Alexander  as  soon 
as  possible.  They  promised,  but  were  rather  slow,  waiting  for  a 
suitable  opportunity.  So  Dinocrates,  thinking  that  they  were 
playing  with  him,  had  recourse  to  his  own  efforts.  He  was  of  very 
lofty  stature  and  pleasing  countenance,  finely  formed,  and  ex- 
tremely dignified.  Trusting,  therefore,  to  these  natural  gifts,  he 
undressed  himself  in  his  inn,  anointed  his  body  with  oil,  set  a 
chaplet  of  poplar  leaves  on  his  head,  draped  his  left  shoulder  with 
a lion’s  skin,  and  holding  a club  in  his  right  hand  stalked  forth  to  a 
place  in  front  of  the  tribunal  where  the  king  was  administering 
justice. 

2.  His  strange  appearance  made  the  people  turn  round,  and 
this  led  Alexander  to  look  at  him.  In  astonishment  he  gave  orders 
to  make  way  for  him  to  draw  near,  and  asked  who  he  was.  “ Dino- 
crates,” quoth  he,  “a  Macedonian  architect,  who  brings  thee 
ideas  and  designs  worthy  of  thy  renown.  I have  made  a design 
for  the  shaping  of  Mount  Athos  into  the  statue  of  a man,  in 
whose  left  hand  I have  represented  a very  spacious  fortified  city, 
and  in  his  right  a bowl  to  receive  the  water  of  all  the  streams 
which  are  in  that  mountain,  so  that  it  may  pour  from  the  bowl 
into  the  sea.” 

3.  Alexander,  delighted  with  the  idea  of  his  design,  immedi- 
ately inquired  whether  there  were  any  fields  in  the  neighbour- 


36 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  II 


hood  that  could  maintain  the  city  in  corn.  On  finding  that  this 
was  impossible  without  transport  from  beyond  the  sea,  “Dino- 
crates,” quoth  he,  “I  appreciate  your  design  as  excellent  in  com- 
position, and  I am  delighted  with  it,  but  I apprehend  that  any- 
body who  should  found  a city  in  that  spot  would  be  censured  for 
bad  judgement.  For  as  a newborn  babe  cannot  be  nourished  with- 
out the  nurse’s  milk,  nor  conducted  to  the  approaches  that  lead  to 
growth  in  life,  so  a city  cannot  thrive  without  fields  and  the  fruits 
thereof  pouring  into  its  walls,  nor  have  a large  population  with- 
out plenty  of  food,  nor  maintain  its  population  without  a supply 
of  it.  Therefore,  while  thinking  that  your  design  is  commendable, 
I consider  the  site  as  not  commendable;  but  I would  have  you 
stay  with  me,  because  I mean  to  make  use  of  your  services.” 

4.  From  that  time.  Dinocrates  did  not  leave  the  king,  but  fol- 
lowed him  into  Egypt.  There  Alexander,  observing  a harbour 
rendered  safe  by  nature,  an  excellent  centre  for  trade,  cornfields 
throughout  all  Egypt,  and  the  great  usefulness  of  the  mighty  river 
Nile,  ordered  him  to  build  the  city  of  Alexandria,  named  after  the 
king.  This  was  how  Dinocrates,  recommended  only  by  his  good 
looks  and  dignified  carriage,  came  to  be  so  famous.  But  as  for  me, 
Emperor,  nature  has  not  given  me  stature,  age  has  marred  my 
face,  and  my  strength  is  impaired  by  ill  health.  Therefore,  since 
these  advantages  fail  me,  I shall  win  your  approval,  as  I hope,  by 
the  help  of  my  knowledge  and  my  writings. 

5.  In  my  first  book,  I have  said  what  I had  to  say  about  the 
functions  of  architecture  and  the  scope  of  the  art,  as  well  as  about 
fortified  towns  and  the  apportionment  of  building  sites  within 
the  fortifications.  Although  it  would  next  be  in  order  to  explain 
the  proper  proportions  and  symmetry  of  temples  and  public  build- 
ings, as  well  as  of  private  houses,  I thought  best  to  postpone  this 
until  after  I had  treated  the  practical  merits  of  the  materials  out 
of  which,  when  they  are  brought  together,  buildings  are  con- 
structed with  due  regard  to  the  proper  kind  of  material  for  each 
part,  and  until  I had  shown  of  what  natural  elements  those 
materials  are  composed.  But  before  beginning  to  explain  their 


INTRODUCTION 


37 


natural  properties,  I will  prefix  the  motives  which  originally  gave 
rise  to  buildings  and  the  development  of  inventions  in  this  field, 
following  in  the  steps  of  early  nature  and  of  those  writers  who 
have  devoted  treatises  to  the  origins  of  civilization  and  the  inves- 
tigation of  inventions.  My  exposition  will,  therefore,  follow  the 
instruction  which  I have  received  from  them. 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  DWELLING  HOUSE 

1.  The  men  of  old  were  born  like  the  wild  beasts,  in  woods, 
caves,  and  groves,  and  lived  on  savage  fare.  As  time  went  on,  the 
thickly  crowded  trees  in  a certain  place,  tossed  by  storms  and 
winds,  and  rubbing  their  branches  against  one  another,  caught 
fire,  and  so  the  inhabitants  of  the  place  were  put  to  flight,  being 
terrified  by  the  furious  flame.  After  it  subsided,  they  drew  near, 
and  observing  that  they  were  very  comfortable  standing  before 
the  warm  fire,  they  put  on  logs  and,  while  thus  keeping  it  alive, 
brought  up  other  people  to  it,  showing  them  by  signs  how  much 
comfort  they  got  from  it.  In  that  gathering  of  men,  at  a time 
when  utterance  of  sound  was  purely  individual,  from  daily  habits 
they  fixed  upon  articulate  words  just  as  these  had  happened  to 
come;  then,  from  indicating  by  name  things  in  common  use,  the 
result  was  that  in  this  chance  way  they  began  to  talk,  and  thus 
originated  conversation  with  one  another. 

2.  Therefore  it  was  the  discovery  of  fire  that  originally  gave 
rise  to  the  coming  together  of  men,  to  the  deliberative  assembly, 
and  to  social  intercourse.  And  so,  as  they  kept  coming  together 
in  greater  numbers  into  one  place,  finding  themselves  naturally 
gifted  beyond  the  other  animals  in  not  being  obliged  to  walk  with 
faces  to  the  ground,  but  upright  and  gazing  upon  the  splendour  of 
the  starry  firmament,  and  also  in  being  able  to  do  with  ease  what- 
ever they  chose  with  their  hands  and  fingers,  they  began  in  that 
first  assembly  to  construct  shelters.  Some  made  them  of  green 
boughs,  others  dug  caves  on  mountain  sides,  and  some,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  nests  of  swallows  and  the  way  they  built,  made 
places  of  refuge  out  of  mud  and  twigs.  Next,  by  observing  the 
shelters  of  others  and  adding  new  details  to  their  own  incep- 


Chap.  I]  ORIGIN  OF  THE  DWELLING  HOUSE 


39 


tions,  they  constructed  better  and  better  kinds  of  huts  as  time 
went  on. 

3.  And  since  they  were  of  an  imitative  and  teachable  nature, 
they  would  daily  point  out  to  each  other  the  results  of  their  build- 
ing, boasting  of  the  novelties  in  it;  and  thus,  with  their  natural 
gifts  sharpened  by  emulation,  their  standards  improved  daily. 
At  first  they  set  up  forked  stakes  connected  by  twigs  and  covered 
these  walls  with  mud.  Others  made  walls  of  lumps  of  dried 
mud,  covering  them  with  reeds  and  leaves  to  keep  out  the  rain 
and  the  heat.  Finding  that  such  roofs  could  not  stand  the  rain 
during  the  storms  of  winter,  they  built  them  with  peaks  daubed 
with  mud,  the  roofs  sloping  and  projecting  so  as  to  carry  off  the 
rain  water. 

4.  That  houses  originated  as  I have  written  above,  we  can  see 
for  ourselves  from  the  buildings  that  are  to  this  day  constructed 
of  like  materials  by  foreign  tribes:  for  instance,  in  Gaul,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Aquitaine,  roofed  with  oak  shingles  or  thatched. 
Among  the  Colchians  in  Pontus,  where  there  are  forests  in  plenty, 
they  lay  down  entire  trees  flat  on  the  ground  to  the  right  and  the 
left,  leaving  between  them  a space  to  suit  the  length  of  the  trees, 
and  then  place  above  these  another  pair  of  trees,  resting  on  the 
ends  of  the  former  and  at  right  angles  with  them.  These  four 
trees  enclose  the  space  for  the  dwelling.  Then  upon  these  they 
place  sticks  of  timber,  one  after  the  other  on  the  four  sides,  cross- 
ing each  other  at  the  angles,  and  so,  proceeding  with  their  walls 
of  trees  laid  perpendicularly  above  the  lowest,  they  build  up  high 
towers.  The  interstices,  which  are  left  on  account  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  building  material,  are  stopped  up  with  chips  and  mud. 
As  for  the  roofs,  by  cutting  away  the  ends  of  the  crossbeams 
and  making  them  converge  gradually  as  they  lay  them  across, 
they  bring  them  up  to  the  top  from  the  four  sides  in  the  shape 
of  a pyramid.  They  cover  it  with  leaves  and  mud,  and  thus  con- 
struct the  roofs  of  their  towers  in  a rude  form  of  the  “tortoise” 
style. 

5.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Phrygians,  who  live  in  an  open  coun- 


40 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  II 


try,  have  no  forests  and  consequently  lack  timber.  They  there- 
fore select  a natural  hillock,  run  a trench  through  the  middle  of 
it,  dig  passages,  and  extend  the  interior  space  as  widely  as  the 
site  admits.  Over  it  they  build  a pyramidal  roof  of  logs  fastened 
together,  and  this  they  cover  with  reeds  and  brushwood,  heaping 
up  very  high  mounds  of  earth  above  their  dwellings.  Thus  their 
fashion  in  houses  makes  their  winters  very  warm  and  their  sum- 
mers very  cool.  Some  construct  hovels  with  roofs  of  rushes  from 
the  swamps.  Among  other  nations,  also,  in  some  places  there 
are  huts  of  the  same  or  a similar  method  of  construction. 
Likewise  at  Marseilles  we  can  see  roofs  without  tiles,  made  of 
earth  mixed  with  straw.  In  Athens  on  the  Areopagus  there  is 
to  this  day  a relic  of  antiquity  with  a mud  roof.  The  hut  of 
Romulus  on  the  Capitol  is  a significant  reminder  of  the  fashions 
of  old  times,  and  likewise  the  thatched  roofs  of  temples  on  the 
Citadel. 

6.  From  such  specimens  we  can  draw  our  inferences  with 
regard  to  the  devices  used  in  the  buildings  of  antiquity,  and  con- 
clude that  they  were  similar. 

Furthermore,  as  men  made  progress  by  becoming  daily  more 
expert  in  building,  and  as  their  ingenuity  was  increased  by  their 
dexterity  so  that  from  habit  they  attained  to  considerable  skill, 
their  intelligence  was  enlarged  by  their  industry  until  the 
more  proficient  adopted  the  trade  of  carpenters.  From  these 
early  beginnings,  and  from  the  fact  that  nature  had  not  only 
endowed  the  human  race  with  senses  like  the  rest  of  the  ani- 
mals, but  had  also  equipped  their  minds  with  the  powers  of 
thought  and  understanding,  thus  putting  all  other  animals  under 
their  sway,  they  next  gradually  advanced  from  the  construction 
of  buildings  to  the  other  arts  and  sciences,  and  so  passed 
from  a rude  and  barbarous  mode  of  life  to  civilization  and 
refinement. 

7.  Then,  taking  courage  and  looking  forward  from  the  stand- 
point of  higher  ideas  born  of  the  multiplication  of  the  arts,  they 
gave  up  huts  and  began  to  build  houses  with  foundations,  having 


Chap.  I]  ORIGIN  OF  THE  DWELLING  HOUSE 


41 


brick  or  stone  walls,  and  roofs  of  timber  and  tiles;  next,  observa- 
tion and  application  led  them  from  fluctuating  and  indefinite 
conceptions  to  definite  rules  of  symmetry.  Perceiving  that  nature 
had  been  lavish  in  the  bestowal  of  timber  and  bountiful  in  stores 
of  building  material,  they  treated  this  like  careful  nurses,  and 
thus  developing  the  refinements  of  life,  embellished  them  with 
luxuries.  Therefore  I shall  now  treat,  to  the  best  of  my  ability, 
of  the  things  which  are  suitable  to  be  used  in  buildings,  showing 
their  qualities  and  their  excellencies. 

8.  Some  persons,  however,  may  find  fault  with  the  position  of 
this  book,  thinking  that  it  should  have  been  placed  first.  I will 
therefore  explain  the  matter,  lest  it  be  thought  that  I have  made  a 
mistake.  Being  engaged  in  writing  a complete  treatise  on  archi- 
tecture, I resolved  to  set  forth  in  the  first  book  the  branches  of 
learning  and  studies  of  which  it  consists,  to  define  its  depart- 
ments, and  to  show  of  what  it  is  composed.  Hence  I have  there 
declared  what  the  qualities  of  an  architect  should  be.  In  the  first 
book,  therefore,  I have  spoken  of  the  function  of  the  art,  but  in 
this  I shall  discuss  the  use  of  the  building  materials  which  nature 
provides.  For  this  book  does  not  show  of  what  architecture  is 
composed,  but  treats  of  the  origin  of  the  building  art,  how  it  was 
fostered,  and  how  it  made  progress,  step  by  step,  until  it  reached 
its  present  perfection. 

9.  This  book  is,  therefore,  in  its  proper  order  and  place. 

I will  now  return  to  my  subject,  and  with  regard  to  the  ma- 
terials suited  to  the  construction  of  buildings  will  consider  their 
natural  formation  and  in  what  proportions  their  elementary  con- 
stituents were  combined,  making  it  all  clear  and  not  obscure  to 
my  readers.  For  there  is  no  kind  of  material,  no  body,  and  no 
thing  that  can  be  produced  or  conceived  of,  which  is  not  made  up 
of  elementary  particles;  and  nature  does  not  admit  of  a truthful 
exploration  in  accordance  with  the  doctrines  of  the  physicists 
without  an  accurate  demonstration  of  the  primary  causes  of 
things,  showing  how  and  why  they  are  as  they  are. 


42 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  II 


CHAPTER  II 

ON  THE  PRIMORDIAL  SUBSTANCE  ACCORDING  TO  THE 

PHYSICISTS 

1.  First  of  all  Thales  thought  that  water  was  the  primordial 
substance  of  all  things.  Heraclitus  of  Ephesus,  surnamed  by 
the  Greeks  ovcoTaw  on  account  of  the  obscurity  of  his  writ- 
ings, thought  that  it  was  fire.  Democritus  and  his  follower  Epi- 
curus thought  that  it  was  the  atoms,  termed  by  our  writers  “bod- 
ies that  cannot  be  cut  up,”  or,  by  some,  “indivisibles.”  The 
school  of  the  Pythagoreans  added  air  and  the  earthy  to  the  water 
and  fire.  Hence,  although  Democritus  did  not  in  a strict  sense 
name  them,  but  spoke  only  of  indivisible  bodies,  yet  he  seems  to 
have  meant  these  same  elements,  because  when  taken  by  them- 
selves they  cannot  be  harmed,  nor  are  they  susceptible  of  dissolu- 
tion, nor  can  they  be  cut  up  into  parts,  but  throughout  time  eter- 
nal they  forever  retain  an  infinite  solidity. 

2.  All  things  therefore  appear  to  be  made  up  and  produced  by 
the  coming  together  of  these  elements,  so  that  they  have  been 
distributed  by  nature  among  an  infinite  number  of  kinds  of 
things.  Hence  I believed  it  right  to  treat  of  the  diversity  and 
practical  peculiarities  of  these  things  as  well  as  of  the  qualities 
which  they  exhibit  in  buildings,  so  that  persons  who  are  intending 
to  build  may  understand  them  and  so  make  no  mistake,  but  may 
gather  materials  which  are  suitable  to  use  in  their  buildings. 


CHAPTER  III 

BRICK 

1.  Beginning  with  bricks,  I shall  state  of  what  kind  of  clay 
they  ought  to  be  made.  They  should  not  be  made  of  sandy  or 
pebbly  clay,  or  of  fine  gravel,  because  when  made  of  these  kinds 
they  are  in  the  first  place  heavy;  and,  secondly,  when  washed  by 


Chap.  Ill] 


BRICK 


43 


the  rain  as  they  stand  in  walls,  they  go  to  pieces  and  break  up,  and 
the  straw  in  them  does  not  hold  together  on  account  of  the  rough- 
ness of  the  material.  They  should  rather  be  made  of  white  and 
chalky  or  of  red  clay,  or  even  of  a coarse  grained  gravelly  clay. 
These  materials  are  smooth  and  therefore  durable;  they  are  not 
heavy  to  work  with,  and  are  readily  laid. 

2.  Bricks  should  be  made  in  Spring  or  Autumn,  so  that  they 
may  dry  uniformly.  Those  made  in  Summer  are  defective,  be- 
cause the  fierce  heat  of  the  sun  bakes  their  surface  and  makes  the 
brick  seem  dry  while  inside  it  is  not  dry.  And  so  the  shrinking, 
which  follows  as  they  dry,  causes  cracks  in  the  parts  which  were 
dried  before,  and  these  cracks  make  the  bricks  weak.  Bricks  will 
be  most  serviceable  if  made  two  years  before  using;  for  they  can- 
not dry  thoroughly  in  less  time.  When  fresh  undried  bricks  are 
used  in  a wall,  the  stucco  covering  stiffens  and  hardens  into  a 
permanent  mass,  but  the  bricks  settle  and  cannot  keep  the  same 
height  as  the  stucco;  the  motion  caused  by  their  shrinking  pre- 
vents them  from  adhering  to  it,  and  they  are  separated  from  their 
union  with  it.  Hence  the  stucco,  no  longer  joined  to  the  core  of 
the  wall,  cannot  stand  by  itself  because  it  is  so  thin;  it  breaks  off, 
and  the  walls  themselves  may  perhaps  be  ruined  by  their  settling. 
This  is  so  true  that  at  Utica  in  constructing  walls  they  use  brick 
only  if  it  is  dry  and  made  five  years  previously,  and  approved  as 
such  by  the  authority  of  a magistrate. 

3.  There  are  three  kinds  of  bricks.  First,  the  kind  called  in 
Greek  Lydian,  being  that  which  our  people  use,  a foot  and  a 
half  long  and  one  foot  wide.  The  other  two  kinds  are  used  by  the 
Greeks  in  their  buildings.  Of  these,  one  is  called  TrevrdBcopov, 
the  other  tgt paBcopov.  Acopov  is  the  Greek  for  “palm,”  for  in 
Greek  Bwpov  means  the  giving  of  gifts,  and  the  gift  is  always  pre- 
sented in  the  palm  of  the  hand.  A brick  five  palms  square  is  called 
“pentadoron  ” ; one  four  palms  square  “tetradoron.”  Public 
buildings  are  constructed  of  TrevraBcopa , private  of  TerpdBcopa . 

4.  With  these  bricks  there  are  also  half-bricks.  When  these  are 
used  in  a wall,  a course  of  bricks  is  laid  on  one  face  and  a course 


44 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  II 


of  half-bricks  on  the  other,  and  they  are  bedded  to  the  line  on 
each  face.  The  walls  are  bonded  by  alternate  courses  of  the  two 

different  kinds,  and  as  the 
bricks  are  always  laid  so  as 
break  joints,  this  lends 


VITRUVIUS’  BRICK-BOND  ACCORDING  TO 
REBER 


to 


strength  and  a not  unattrac- 
tive appearance  to  both  sides  of  such  walls. 

In  the  states  of  Maxilua  and  Callet,  in  Further  Spain,  as  well 
as  in  Pitane  in  Asia  Minor,  there  are  bricks  which,  when  fin- 
ished and  dried,  will  float  on  being  thrown  into  water.  The 
reason  why  they  can  float  seems  to  be  that  the  clay  of  which 
they  are  made  is  like  pumice-stone.  So  it  is  light,  and  also  it 
does  not,  after  being  hardened  by  exposure  to  the  air,  take  up  or 
absorb  liquid.  So  these  bricks,  being  of  this  light  and  porous 
quality,  and  admitting  no  moisture  into  their  texture,  must  by 
the  laws  of  nature  float  in  water,  like  pumice,  no  matter  what 
their  weight  may  be.  They  have  therefore  great  advantages;  for 
they  are  not  heavy  to  use  in  building  and,  once  made,  they  are 
not  spoiled  by  bad  weather. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SAND 

1.  In  walls  of  masonry  the  first  question  must  be  with  regard 
to  the  sand,  in  order  that  it  may  be  fit  to  mix  into  mortar  and 
have  no  dirt  in  it.  The  kinds  of  pitsand  are  these:  black,  gray, 
red,  and  carbuncular.  Of  these  the  best  will  be  found  to  be  that 
which  crackles  when  rubbed  in  the  hand,  while  that  which  has 
much  dirt  in  it  will  not  be  sharp  enough.  Again : throw  some  sand 
upon  a white  garment  and  then  shake  it  out;  if  the  garment  is  not 
soiled  and  no  dirt  adheres  to  it,  the  sand  is  suitable. 

2.  But  if  there  are  no  sandpits  from  which  it  can  be  dug,  then 
we  must  sift  it  out  from  river  beds  or  from  gravel  or  even  from  the 
sea  beach.  This  kind,  however,  has  these  defects  when  used  in 


Chap.  V] 


LIME 


45 


masonry:  it  dries  slowly;  the  wall  cannot  be  built  up  without  in- 
terruption but  from  time  to  time  there  must  be  pauses  in  the 
work;  and  such  a wall  cannot  carry  vaultings.  Furthermore,  when 
sea-sand  is  used  in  walls  and  these  are  coated  with  stucco,  a salty 
efflorescence  is  given  out  which  spoils  the  surface. 

3.  But  pitsand  used  in  masonry  dries  quickly,  the  stucco  coat- 
ing is  permanent,  and  the  walls  can  support  vaultings.  I am 
speaking  of  sand  fresh  from  the  sandpits.  For  if  it  lies  unused 
too  long  after  being  taken  out,  it  is  disintegrated  by  exposure  to 
sun,  moon,  or  hoar  frost,  and  becomes  earthy.  So  when  mixed  in 
masonry,  it  has  no  binding  power  on  the  rubble,  which  conse- 
quently settles  and  down  comes  the  load  which  the  walls  can  no 
longer  support.  Fresh  pitsand,  however,  in  spite  of  all  its  excel- 
lence in  concrete  structures,  is  not  equally  useful  in  stucco,  the 
richness  of  which,  when  the  lime  and  straw  are  mixed  with  such 
sand,  will  cause  it  to  crack  as  it  dries  on  account  of  the  great 
strength  of  the  mixture.  But  river  sand,  though  useless  in  “ sig- 
ninum  ” on  account  of  its  thinness,  becomes  perfectly  solid  in 
stucco  when  thoroughly  worked  by  means  of  polishing  instru- 
ments. 

CHAPTER  V 

LIME 

1.  Sand  and  its  sources  having  been  thus  treated,  next  with 
regard  to  lime  we  must  be  careful  that  it  is  burned  from  a stone 
which,  whether  soft  or  hard,  is  in  any  case  white.  Lime  made  of 
close-grained  stone  of  the  harder  sort  will  be  good  in  structural 
parts;  lime  of  porous  stone,  in  stucco.  After  slaking  it,  mix  your 
mortar,  if  using  pitsand,  in  the  proportions  of  three  parts  of  sand 
to  one  of  lime;  if  using  river  or  sea-sand,  mix  two  parts  of  sand 
with  one  of  lime.  These  will  be  the  right  proportions  for  the  com- 
position of  the  mixture.  Further,  in  using  river  or  sea-sand,  the 
addition  of  a third  part  composed  of  burnt  brick,  pounded  up  and 
sifted,  will  make  your  mortar  of  a better  composition  to  use. 


46 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  II 


2.  The  reason  why  lime  makes  a solid  structure  on  being  com- 
bined with  water  and  sand  seems  to  be  this : that  rocks,  like  all 
other  bodies,  are  composed  of  the  four  elements.  Those  which 
contain  a larger  proportion  of  air,  are  soft;  of  water,  are  tough 
from  the  moisture;  of  earth,  hard;  and  of  fire,  more  brittle.  There- 
fore, if  limestone,  without  being  burned,  is  merely  pounded  up 
small  and  then  mixed  with  sand  and  so  put  into  the  work,  the 
mass  does  not  solidify  nor  can  it  hold  together.  But  if  the  stone 
is  first  thrown  into  the  kiln,  it  loses  its  former  property  of  solidity 
by  exposure  to  the  great  heat  of  the  fire,  and  so  with  its  strength 
burnt  out  and  exhausted  it  is  left  with  its  pores  open  and  empty. 
Hence,  the  moisture  and  air  in  the  body  of  the  stone  being 
burned  out  and  set  free,  and  only  a residuum  of  heat  being  left 
lying  in  it,  if  the  stone  is  then  immersed  in  water,  the  moisture, 
before  the  water  can  feel  the  influence  of  the  fire,  makes  its 
way  into  the  open  pores;  then  the  stone  begins  to  get  hot,  and 
finally,  after  it  cools  off,  the  heat  is  rejected  from  the  body  of 
the  lime. 

3.  Consequently,  limestone  when  taken  out  of  the  kiln  cannot 
be  as  heavy  as  when  it  was  thrown  in,  but  on  being  weighed, 
though  its  bulk  remains  the  same  as  before,  it  is  found  to  have 
lost  about  a third  of  its  weight  owing  to  the  boiling  out  of  the 
water.  Therefore,  its  pores  being  thus  opened  and  its  texture  ren- 
dered loose,  it  readily  mixes  with  sand,  and  hence  the  two  mate- 
rials cohere  as  they  dry,  unite  with  the  rubble,  and  make  a solid 
structure. 


CHAPTER  VI 

POZZOLANA 

1.  There  is  also  a kind  of  powder  which  from  natural  causes 
produces  astonishing  results.  It  is  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Baiae  and  in  the  country  belonging  to  the  towns  round  about 
Mt.  Vesuvius.  This  substance,  when  mixed  with  lime  and  rub- 


Chap.  VI] 


POZZOLANA 


47 


ble,  not  only  lends  strength  to  buildings  of  other  kinds,  but  even 
when  piers  of  it  are  constructed  in  the  sea,  they  set  hard  under 
water.  The  reason  for  this  seems  to  be  that  the  soil  on  the  slopes 
of  the  mountains  in  these  neighbourhoods  is  hot  and  full  of  hot 
springs.  This  would  not  be  so  unless  the  mountains  had  beneath 
them  huge  fires  of  burning  sulphur  or  alum  or  asphalt.  So  the  fire 
and  the  heat  of  the  flames,  coming  up  hot  from  far  within  through 
the  fissures,  make  the  soil  there  light,  and  the  tufa  found  there 
is  spongy  and  free  from  moisture.  Hence,  when  the  three  sub- 
stances, all  formed  on  a similar  principle  by  the  force  of  fire,  are 
mixed  together,  the  water  suddenly  taken  in  makes  them  cohere, 
and  the  moisture  quickly  hardens  them  so  that  they  set  into 
a mass  which  neither  the  waves  nor  the  force  of  the  water  can 
dissolve. 

2.  That  there  is  burning  heat  in  these  regions  may  be  proved 
by  the  further  fact  that  in  the  mountains  near  Baiae,  which  be- 
longs to  the  Cumaeans,  there  are  places  excavated  to  serve  as 
sweating-baths,  where  the  intense  heat  that  comes  from  far  be- 
low bores  its  way  through  the  earth,  owing  to  the  force  of  the  fire, 
and  passing  up  appears  in  these  regions,  thus  making  remarkably 
good  sweating-baths.  Likewise  also  it  is  related  that  in  ancient 
times  the  tides  of  heat,  swelling  and  overflowing  from  under 
Mt.  Vesuvius,  vomited  forth  fire  from  the  mountain  upon  the 
neighbouring  country.  Hence,  what  is  called  “sponge-stone”  or 
“Pompeian. pumice”  appears  to  have  been  reduced  by  burning 
from  another  kind  of  stone  to  the  condition  of  the  kind  which 
we  see. 

3.  The  kind  of  sponge-stone  taken  from  this  region  is  not  pro- 
duced everywhere  else,  but  only  about  Aetna  and  among  the  hills 
of  Mysia  which  the  Greeks  call  the  “Burnt  District,”  and  in 
other  places  of  the  same  peculiar  nature.  Seeing  that  in  such 
places  there  are  found  hot  springs  and  warm  vapour  in  excava- 
tions on  the  mountains,  and  that  the  ancients  tell  us  that  there 
were  once  fires  spreading  over  the  fields  in  those  very  regions,  it 
seems  to  be  certain  that  moisture  has  been  extracted  from  the 


VITRUVIUS 


48 


[Book  II 


tufa  and  earth,  by  the  force  of  fire,  just  as  it  is  from  limestone  in 
kilns. 

4.  Therefore,  when  different  and  unlike  things  have  been  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  fire  and  thus  reduced  to  the  same  condi- 
tion, if  after  this,  while  in  a warm,  dry  state,  they  are  suddenly 
saturated  with  water,  there  is  an  effervescence  of  the  heat  latent 
in  the  bodies  of  them  all,  and  this  makes  them  firmly  unite  and 
quickly  assume  the  property  of  one  solid  mass. 

There  will  still  be  the  question  why  Tuscany,  although  it 
abounds  in  hot  springs,  does  not  furnish  a powder  out  of  which, 
on  the  same  principle,  a wall  can  be  made  which  will  set  fast  under 
water.  I have  therefore  thought  best  to  explain  how  this  seems  to 
be,  before  the  question  should  be  raised. 

5.  The  same  kinds  of  soil  are  not  found  in  all  places  and  coun- 
tries alike,  nor  is  stone  found  everywhere.  Some  soils  are  earthy; 
others  gravelly,  and  again  pebbly;  in  other  places  the  material 
is  sandy;  in  a word,  the  properties  of  the  soil  are  as  different  and 
unlike  as  are  the  various  countries.  In  particular,  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  sandpits  are  hardly  ever  lacking  in  any  place  within 
the  districts  of  Italy  and  Tuscany  which  are  bounded  by  the 
Apennines ; whereas  across  the  Apennines  toward  the  Adriatic  none 
are  found,  and  in  Achaea  and  Asia  Minor  or,  in  short,  across  the 
sea,  the  very  term  is  unknown.  Hence  it  is  not  in  all  the  places 
where  boiling  springs  of  hot  water  abound,  that  there  is  the  same 
combination  of  favourable  circumstances  which  has  been  described 
above.  For  things  are  produced  in  accordance  with  the  will  of 
nature;  not  to  suit  man’s  pleasure,  but  as  it  were  by  a chance  dis- 
tribution. 

6.  Therefore,  where  the  mountains  are  not  earthy  but  consist  of 
soft  stone,  the  force  of  the  fire,  passing  through  the  fissures  in  the 
stone,  sets  it  afire.  The  soft  and  delicate  part  is  burned  out,  while 
the  hard  part  is  left.  Consequently,  while  in  Campania  the  burn- 
ing of  the  earth  makes  ashes,  in  Tuscany  the  combustion  of  the 
stone  makes  carbuncular  sand.  Both  are  excellent  in  walls,  but 
one  is  better  to  use  for  buildings  on  land,  the  other  for  piers 


TRAVERTINE  QUARRIES  ON  THE  ROMAN  CAMPAGNA 
1.  2.  Ancient  quarries.  3.  A similar  modern  quarry. 

The  top  of  the  rock  shows  the  original  ground  level.  The  present  ground  level  shows  the 
depth  to  which  the  rock  has  been  removed. 


Chap.  VII] 


STONE 


49 


under  salt  water.  The  Tuscan  stone  is  softer  in  quality  than  tufa 
but  harder  than  earth,  and  being  thoroughly  kindled  by  the  vio- 
lent heat  from  below,  the  result  is  the  production  in  some  places 
of  the  kind  of  sand  called  carbuncular. 


CHAPTER  VII 

STONE 

1.  I have  now  spoken  of  lime  and  sand,  with  their  varieties  and 
points  of  excellence.  Next  comes  the  consideration  of  stone- 
quarries  from  which  dimension  stone  and  supplies  of  rubble  to  be 
used  in  building  are  taken  and  brought  together.  The  stone  in 
quarries  is  found  to  be  of  different  and  unlike  qualities.  In  some 
it  is  soft : for  example,  in  the  environs  of  the  city  at  the  quarries 
of  Grotta  Rossa,  Palla,  Fidenae,  and  of  the  Alban  hills;  in 
others,  it  is  medium,  as  at  Tivoli,  at  Amiternum,  or  Mt.  Soracte, 
and  in  quarries  of  this  sort;  in  still  others  it  is  hard,  as  in  lava 
quarries.  There  are  also  numerous  other  kinds:  for  instance,  in 
Campania,  red  and  black  tufas  ; in  Umbria,  Picenum,  and  Vene- 
tia,  white  tufa  which  can  be  cut  with  a toothed  saw,  like  wood. 

2.  All  these  soft  kinds  have  the  advantage  that  they  can  be 
easily  worked  as  soon  as  they  have  been  taken  from  the  quarries. 
Under  cover  they  play  their  part  well;  but  in  open  and  exposed 
situations  the  frost  and  rime  make  them  crumble,  and  they  go  to 
pieces.  On  the  seacoast,  too,  the  salt  eats  away  and  dissolves  them, 
nor  can  they  stand  great  heat  either.  But  travertine  and  all  stone 
of  that  class  can  stand  injury  whether  from  a heavy  load  laid 
upon  it  or  from  the  weather;  exposure  to  fire,  however,  it  cannot 
bear,  but  splits  and  cracks  to  pieces  at  once.  This  is  because  in 
its  natural  composition  there  is  but  little  moisture  and  not  much 
of  the  earthy,  but  a great  deal  of  air  and  of  fire.  Therefore,  it  is 
not  only  without  the  earthy  and  watery  elements,  but  when  fire, 
expelling  the  air  from  it  by  the  operation  and  force  of  heat,  pene- 
trates into  its  inmost  parts  and  occupies  the  empty  spaces  of  the 


VITRUVIUS 


50 


[Book  II 


fissures,  there  comes  a great  glow  and  the  stone  is  made  to  burn 
as  fiercely  as  do  the  particles  of  fire  itself. 

3.  There  are  also  several  quarries  called  Anician  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Tarquinii,  the  stone  being  of  the  colour  of  peperino.  The 
principal  workshops  lie  round  the  lake  of  Bolsena  and  in  the  pre- 
fecture of  Statonia.  This  stone  has  innumerable  good  qualities. 
Neither  the  season  of  frost  nor  exposure  to  fire  can  harm  it,  but 
it  remains  solid  and  lasts  to  a great  age,  because  there  is  only  a 
little  air  and  fire  in  its  natural  composition,  a moderate  amount 
of  moisture,  and  a great  deal  of  the  earthy.  Hence  its  structure 
is  of  close  texture  and  solid,  and  so  it  cannot  be  injured  by  the 
weather  or  by  the  force  of  fire. 

4.  This  may  best  be  seen  from  monuments  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  town  of  Ferento  which  are  made  of  stone  from  these 
quarries.  Among  them  are  large  statues  exceedingly  well  made, 
images  of  smaller  size,  and  flowers  and  acanthus  leaves  gracefully 
carved.  Old  as  these  are,  they  look  as  fresh  as  if  they  were  only 
just  finished.  Bronze  workers,  also,  make  moulds  for  the  casting 
of  bronze  out  of  stone  from  these  quarries,  and  find  it  very  useful 
in  bronze-founding.  If  the  quarries  were  only  near  Rome,  all  our 
buildings  might  well  be  constructed  from  the  products  of  these 
workshops. 

5.  But  since,  on  account  of  the  proximity  of  the  stone-quarries 
of  Grotta  Rossa,  Palla,  and  the  others  that  are  nearest  to  the  city, 
necessity  drives  us  to  make  use  of  their  products,  we  must  pro- 
ceed as  follows,  if  we  wish  our  work  to  be  finished  without  flaws. 
Let  the  stone  be  taken  from  the  quarry  two  years  before  building 
is  to  begin,  and  not  in  winter  but  in  summer.  Then  let  it  lie  ex- 
posed in  an  open  place.  Such  stone  as  has  been  damaged  by  the 
two  years  of  exposure  should  be  used  in  the  foundations.  The 
rest,  which  remains  unhurt,  has  passed  the  test  of  nature  and 
will  endure  in  those  parts  of  the  building  which  are  above 
ground.  This  precaution  should  be  observed,  not  only  with 
dimension  stone,  but  also  with  the  rubble  which  is  to  be  used 
in  walls. 


Photo.  Moscioni 

EXAMPLE  OF  OPUS  INCERTUM,  THE  CIRCULAR  TEMPLE  AT  TIVOLI 


Chap.  VIII]  METHODS  OF  BUILDING  WALLS 


51 


CHAPTER  VIII 

METHODS  OF  BUILDING  WALLS 

1.  There  are  two  styles  of  walls:  “opus  reticulatum,”  now 
used  by  everybody,  and  the  ancient  style  called  “opus  incertum.” 
Of  these,  the  reticulatum  looks  better,  but  its  construction  makes 
it  likely  to  crack,  because  its  beds  and  builds  spread  out  in  every 
direction.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  opus  incertum,  the  rubble, 
lying  in  courses  and  imbricated,  makes  a wall  which,  though  not 
beautiful,  is  stronger  than  the  reticulatum. 

2.  Both  kinds  should  be  constructed  of  the  smallest  stones,  so 
that  the  walls,  being  thoroughly  puddled  with  the  mortar,  which 
is  made  of  lime  and  sand,  may  hold  together  longer.  Since  the 
stones  used  are  soft  and  porous,  they  are  apt  to  suck  the  mois- 
ture out  of  the  mortar  and  so  to  dry  it  up.  But  when  there  is 
abundance  of  lime  and  sand,  the  wall,  containing  more  moisture, 
will  not  soon  lose  its  strength,  for  they  will  hold  it  together.  But 
as  soon  as  the  moisture  is  sucked  out  of  the  mortar  by  the  porous 
rubble,  and  the  lime  and  sand  separate  and  disunite,  the  rubble 
can  no  longer  adhere  to  them  and  the  wall  will  in  time  become  a 
ruin. 

3.  This  we  may  learn  from  several  monuments  in  the  environs 
of  the  city,  which  are  built  of  marble  or  dimension  stone,  but  on 
the  inside  packed  with  masonry  between  the  outer  walls.  In  the 
course  of  time,  the  mortar  has  lost  its  strength,  which  has  been 
sucked  out  of  it  by  the  porousness  of  the  rubble;  and  so  the  monu- 
ments are  tumbling  down  and  going  to  pieces,  with  their  joints 
loosened  by  the  settling  of  the  material  that  bound  them  together. 

4.  He  who  wishes  to  avoid  such  a disaster  should  leave  a 
cavity  behind  the  facings,  and  on  the  inside  build  walls  two 
feet  thick,  made  of  red  dimension  stone  or  burnt  brick  or  lava  in 
courses,  and  then  bind  them  to  the  fronts  by  means  of  iron  clamps 
and  lead.  For  thus  his  work,  being  no  mere  heap  of  material  but 
regularly  laid  in  courses,  will  be  strong  enough  to  last  forever 


52 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  II 


without  a flaw,  because  the  beds  and  builds,  all  settling  equally 
and  bonded  at  the  joints,  will  not  let  the  work  bulge  out,  nor 
allow  the  fall  of  the  face  walls  which  have  been  tightly  fastened 
together. 

5.  Consequently,  the  method  of  construction  employed  by  the 
Greeks  is  not  to  be  despised.  They  do  not  use  a structure  of  soft 
rubble  polished  on  the  outside,  but  whenever  they  forsake  dimen- 
sion stone,  they  lay  courses  of  lava  or  of  some  hard  stone,  and,  as 
though  building  with  brick,  they  bind  the  upright  joints  by  inter- 
changing the  direction  of  the  stones  as  they  lie  in  the  courses. 
Thus  they  attain  to  a perfection  that  will  endure  to  eternity. 
These  structures  are  of  two  kinds.  One  of  them  is  called  “isodo- 
mum,”  the  other  “pseudisodomum.” 

6.  A wall  is  called  isodomum  when  all  the  courses  are  of  equal 
height;  pseudisodomum,  when  the  rows  of  courses  do  not  match 
but  run  unequally.  Both  kinds  are  strong:  first,  because  the 
rubble  itself  is  of  close  texture  and  solid,  unable  to  suck  the  mois- 
ture out  of  the  mortar,  but  keeping  it  in  its  moist  condition  for  a 
very  long  period;  secondly,  because  the  beds  of  the  stones,  being 
laid  smooth  and  level  to  begin  with,  keep  the  mortar  from  falling, 
and,  as  they  are  bonded  throughout  the  entire  thickness  of  the 
wall,  they  hold  together  for  a very  long  period. 

7.  Another  method  is  that  which  they  call  enirXetcTov,  used 
also  among  us  in  the  country.  In  this  the  facings  are  finished,  but 
the  other  stones  left  in  their  natural  state  and  then  laid  with 
alternate  bonding  stones.  But  our  workmen,  in  their  hurry  to 
finish,  devote  themselves  only  to  the  facings  of  the  walls,  setting 
them  upright  but  filling  the  space  between  with  a lot  of  broken 
stones  and  mortar  thrown  in  anyhow.  This  makes  three  differ- 
ent sections  in  the  same  structure;  two  consisting  of  facing  and 
one  of  filling  between  them.  The  Greeks,  however,  do  not  build  so ; 
but  laying  their  stones  level  and  building  every  other  stone  length- 
wise into  the  thickness,  they  do  not  fill  the  space  between,  but 
construct  the  thickness  of  their  walls  in  one  solid  and  unbroken 
mass  from  the  facings  to  the  interior.  Further,  at  intervals  they 


Photo.  Moscioni  Photo  llosciont 

OPUS  RETICULATUM  FROM  THE  THERMAE  OF  EXAMPLE  OF  OPUS  RETICULATUM 

HADRIAN’S  VILLA  AT  TIVOLI  FROM  THE  DOORWAY  OF  THE  STOA 


53 


Chap.  VIII]  METHODS  OF  BUILDING  WALLS 

lay  single  stones  which  run  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the 
wall.  These  stones,  which  show  at  each  end,  are  called  Siarovoi, 
and  by  their  bonding  powers  they  add  very  greatly  to  the  solidity 
of  the  walls. 

8.  One  who  in  accordance  with  these  notes  will  take  pains  in 
selecting  his  method  of  construction,  may  count  upon  having 
something  that  will  last.  No  walls  made  of  rubble  and  finished 
with  delicate  beauty  — no  such  walls  can  escape  ruin  as  time  goes 
on.  Hence,  when  arbitrators  are  chosen  to  set  a valuation  on 
party  walls,  they  do  not  value  them  at  what  they  cost  to  build, 
but  look  up  the  written  contract  in  each  case  and  then,  after  de- 
ducting from  the  cost  one  eightieth  for  each  year  that  the  wall  has 
been  standing,  decide  that  the  remainder  is  the  sum  to  be  paid. 
They  thus  in  effect  pronounce  that  such  walls  cannot  last  more 
than  eighty  years. 

9.  In  the  case  of  brick  walls,  however,  no  deduction  is  made 
provided  that  they  are  still  standing  plumb,  but  they  are  always 
valued  at  what  they  cost  to  build.  Hence  in  some  states  we  may 
see  public  buildings  and  private  houses,  as  well  as  those  of  kings, 
built  of  brick : in  Athens,  for  example,  the  part  of  the  wall  which 
faces  Mt.  Hymettus  and  Pentelicus;  at  Patras,  the  cellae  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  and  Hercules,  which  are  brick,  although  on  the 
outside  the  entablature  and  columns  of  the  temple  are  of  stone; 
in  Italy,  at  Arezzo,  an  ancient  wall  excellently  built;  at  Tralles, 
the  house  built  for  the  kings  of  the  dynasty  of  Attalus,  which  is 
now  always  granted  to  the  man  who  holds  the  state  priesthood. 
In  Sparta,  paintings  have  been  taken  out  of  certain  walls  by  cut- 
ting through  the  bricks,  then  have  been  placed  in  wooden  frames, 
and  so  brought  to  the  Comitium  to  adorn  the  aedileship  of  Varro 
and  Murena. 

10.  Then  there  is  the  house  of  Croesus  which  the  people  of 
Sardis  have  set  apart  as  a place  of  repose  for  their  fellow-citizens 
in  the  retirement  of  age,  — a “Gerousia”  for  the  guild  of  the 
elder  men.  At  Halicarnassus,  the  house  of  that  most  potent  king 
Mausolus,  though  decorated  throughout  with  Proconnesian  mar- 


54 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  II 


ble,  has  walls  built  of  brick  which  are  to  this  day  of  extraordinary 
strength,  and  are  covered  with  stucco  so  highly  polished  that  they 
seem  to  be  as  glistening  as  glass.  That  king  did  not  use  brick 
from  poverty;  for  he  was  choke-full  of  revenues,  being  ruler  of 
all  Caria. 

11.  As  for  his  skill  and  ingenuity  as  a builder,  they  may  be  seen 
from  what  follows.  He  was  born  at  Melassa,  but  recognizing  the 
natural  advantages  of  Halicarnassus  as  a fortress,  and  seeing  that 
it  was  suitable  as  a trading  centre  and  that  it  had  a good  harbour, 
he  fixed  his  residence  there.  The  place  had  a curvature  like  that 
of  the  seats  in  a theatre.  On  the  lowest  tier,  along  the  harbour, 
was  built  the  forum.  About  half-way  up  the  curving  slope,  at 
the  point  where  the  curved  cross-aisle  is  in  a theatre,  a broad  wide 
street  was  laid  out,  in  the  middle  of  which  was  built  the  Mauso- 
leum, a work  so  remarkable  that  it  is  classed  among  the  Seven 
Wonders  of  the  World.  At  the  top  of  the  hill,  in  the  centre,  is  the 
fane  of  Mars,  containing  a colossal  acrolithic  statue  by  the  fa- 
mous hand  of  Leochares.  That  is,  some  think  that  this  statue  is 
by  Leochares,  others  by  Timotheus.  At  the  extreme  right  of  the 
summit  is  the  fane  of  Venus  and  Mercury,  close  to  the  spring  of 
Salmacis. 

12.  There  is  a mistaken  idea  that  this  spring  infects  those  who 
drink  of  it  with  an  unnatural  lewdness.  It  will  not  be  out  of  place 
to  explain  how  this  idea  came  to  spread  throughout  the  world 
from  a mistake  in  the  telling  of  the  tale.  It  cannot  be  that  the 
water  makes  men  effeminate  and  unchaste,  as  it  is  said  to  do;  for 
the  spring  is  of  remarkable  clearness  and  excellent  in  flavour. 
The  fact  is  that  when  Melas  and  Arevanias  came  there  from  Ar- 
gos and  Troezen  and  founded  a colony  together,  they  drove  out 
the  Carians  and  Lelegans  who  were  barbarians.  These  took 
refuge  in  the  mountains,  and,  uniting  there,  used  to  make  raids, 
plundering  the  Greeks  and  laying  their  country  waste  in  a cruel 
manner.  Later,  one  of  the  colonists,  to  make  money,  set  up  a well- 
stocked  shop,  near  the  spring  because  the  water  was  so  good,  and 
the  way  in  which  he  carried  it  on  attracted  the  barbarians.  So 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  AT  HALICARNASSUS  AS  RESTORED  BY  FRIEDRICH  ADLER 


55 


Chap.  VIII]  METHODS  OF  BUILDING  WALLS 

they  began  to  come  down,  one  at  a time,  and  to  meet  with  society, 
and  thus  they  were  brought  back  of  their  own  accord,  giving  up 
their  rough  and  savage  ways  for  the  delights  of  Greek  customs. 
Hence  this  water  acquired  its  peculiar  reputation,  not  because 
it  really  induced  unchastity,  but  because  those  barbarians  were 
softened  by  the  charm  of  civilization. 

13.  But  since  I have  been  tempted  into  giving  a description  of 
this  fortified  place,  it  remains  to  finish  my  account  of  it.  Cor- 
responding to  the  fane  of  Venus  and  the  spring  described  above, 
which  are  on  the  right,  we  have  on  the  extreme  left  the  royal  pal- 
ace which  king  Mausolus  built  there  in  accordance  with  a plan  all 
his  own.  To  the  right  it  commands  a view  of  the  forum,  the  har- 
bour, and  the  entire  line  of  fortifications,  while  just  below  it,  to 
the  left,  there  is  a concealed  harbour,  hidden  under  the  walls  in 
such  a way  that  nobody  could  see  or  know  what  was  going  on  in 
it.  Only  the  king  himself  could,  in  case  of  need,  give  orders  from 
his  own  palace  to  the  oarsmen  and  soldiers,  without  the  knowledge 
of  anybody  else. 

14.  After  the  death  of  Mausolus,  his  wife  Artemisia  became 
queen,  and  the  Rhodians,  regarding  it  as  an  outrage  that  a woman 
should  be  ruler  of  the  states  of  all  Caria,  fitted  out  a fleet  and 
sallied  forth  to  seize  upon  the  kingdom.  When  news  of  this 
reached  Artemisia,  she  gave  orders  that  her  fleet  should  be  hid- 
den away  in  that  harbour  with  oarsmen  and  marines  mustered 
and  concealed,  but  that  the  rest  of  the  citizens  should  take  their 
places  on  the  city  wall.  After  the  Rhodians  had  landed  at  the 
larger  harbour  with  their  well-equipped  fleet,  she  ordered  the 
people  on  the  wall  to  cheer  them  and  to  promise  that  they  would 
deliver  up  the  town.  Then,  when  they  had  passed  inside  the  wall, 
leaving  their  fleet  empty,  Artemisia  suddenly  made  a canal  which 
led  to  the  sea,  brought  her  fleet  thus  out  of  the  smaller  harbour, 
and  so  sailed  into  the  larger.  Disembarking  her  soldiers,  she 
towed  the  empty  fleet  of  the  Rhodians  out  to  sea.  So  the  Rhod- 
ians were  surrounded  without  means  of  retreat,  and  were  slain  in 
the  very  forum. 


56 


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[Book  II 


15.  So  Artemisia  embarked  her  own  soldiers  and  oarsmen  in 
the  ships  of  the  Rhodians  and  set  forth  for  Rhodes.  The  Rhod- 
ians, beholding  their  own  ships  approaching  wreathed  with  laurel, 
supposed  that  their  fellow-citizens  were  returning  victorious, 
and  admitted  the  enemy.  Then  Artemisia,  after  taking  Rhodes 
and  killing  its  leading  men,  put  up  in  the  city  of  Rhodes  a trophy 
of  her  victory,  including  two  bronze  statues,  one  representing  the 
state  of  the  Rhodians,  the  other  herself.  Herself  she  fashioned  in 
the  act  of  branding  the  state  of  the  Rhodians.  In  later  times  the 
Rhodians,  labouring  under  the  religious  scruple  which  makes  it 
a sin  to  remove  trophies  once  they  are  dedicated,  constructed  a 
building  to  surround  the  place,  and  thus  by  the  erection  of  the 
“Grecian  Station”  covered  it  so  that  nobody  could  see  it,  and 
ordered  that  the  building  be  called  “ afiarov .” 

16.  Since  such  very  powerful  kings  have  not  disdained  walls 
built  of  brick,  although  with  their  revenues  and  from  booty  they 
might  often  have  had  them  not  only  of  masonry  or  dimension 
stone  but  even  of  marble,  I think  that  one  ought  not  to  reject 
buildings  made  of  brick-work,  provided  that  they  are  properly 
“topped.”  But  I shall  explain  why  this  kind  of  structure  should 
not  be  used  by  the  Roman  people  within  the  city,  not  omitting 
the  reasons  and  the  grounds  for  them. 

17.  The  laws  of  the  state  forbid  that  walls  abutting  on  public 
property  should  be  more  than  a foot  and  a half  thick.  The  other 
walls  are  built  of  the  same  thickness  in  order  to  save  space.  Now 
brick  walls,  unless  two  or  three  bricks  thick,  cannot  support 
more  than  one  story;  certainly  not  if  they  are  only  a foot  and  a 
half  in  thickness.  But  with  the  present  importance  of  the  city 
and  the  unlimited  numbers  of  its  population,  it  is  necessary  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  dwelling-places  indefinitely.  Consequently, 
as  the  ground  floors  could  not  admit  of  so  great  a number  living 
in  the  city,  the  nature  of  the  case  has  made  it  necessary  to  find 
relief  by  making  the  buildings  high.  In  these  tall  piles  reared  with 
piers  of  stone,  walls  of  burnt  brick,  and  partitions  of  rubble  work, 
and  provided  with  floor  after  floor,  the  upper  stories  can  be  par- 


Chap.  VIII]  METHODS  OF  BUILDING  WALLS 


57 


titioned  off  into  rooms  to  very  great  advantage.  The  accommo- 
dations within  the  city  walls  being  thus  multiplied  as  a result 
of  the  many  floors  high  in  the  air,  the  Roman  people  easily  find' 
excellent  places  in  which  to  live. 

18.  It  has  now  been  explained  how  limitations  of  building  space 
necessarily  forbid  the  employment  of  brick  walls  within  the  city. 
When  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  them  outside  the  city,  they 
should  be  constructed  as  follows  in  order  to  be  perfect  and  dura- 
ble. On  the  top  of  the  wall  lay  a structure  of  burnt  brick,  about  a 
foot  and  a half  in  height,  under  the  tiles  and  projecting  like  a cop- 
ing. Thus  the  defects  usual  in  these  walls  can  be  avoided.  For 
when  the  tiles  on  the  roof  are  broken  or  thrown  down  by  the  wind 
so  that  rain-water  can  leak  through,  this  burnt  brick  coating  will 
prevent  the  crude  brick  from  being  damaged,  and  the  cornice-like 
projection  will  throw  off  the  drops  beyond  the  vertical  face,  and 
thus  the  walls,  though  of  crude  brick  structure,  will  be  preserved 
intact. 

19.  With  regard  to  burnt  brick,  nobody  can  tell  offhand 
whether  it  is  of  the  best  or  unfit  to  use  in  a wall,  because  its 
strength  can  be  tested  only  after  it  has  been  used  on  a roof  and 
exposed  to  bad  weather  and  time — then,  if  it  is  good  it  is  accepted. 
If  not  made  of  good  clay  or  if  not  baked  sufficiently,  it  shows 
itself  defective  there  when  exposed  to  frosts  and  rime.  Brick  that 
will  not  stand  exposure  on  roofs  can  never  be  strong  enough  to 
carry  its  load  in  a wall.  Hence  the  strongest  burnt  brick  walls  are 
those  which  are  constructed  out  of  old  roofing  tiles. 

20.  As  for  “wattle  and  daub”  I could  wish  that  it  had  never 
been  invented.  The  more  it  saves  in  time  and  gains  in  space,  the 
greater  and  the  more  general  is  the  disaster  that  it  may  cause;  for 
it  is  made  to  catch  fire,  like  torches.  It  seems  better,  therefore,  to 
spend  on  walls  of  burnt  brick,  and  be  at  expense,  than  to  save  with 
“wattle  and  daub,”  and  be  in  danger.  And,  in  the  stucco  covering, 
too,  it  makes  cracks  from  the  inside  by  the  arrangement  of  its 
studs  and  girts.  For  these  swell  with  moisture  as  they  are  daubed, 
and  then  contract  as  they  dry,  and,  by  their  shrinking,  cause  the 


58 


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[Book  II 


solid  stucco  to  split.  But  since  some  are  obliged  to  use  it  either 
to  save  time  or  money,  or  for  partitions  on  an  unsupported  span, 
the  proper  method  of  construction  is  as  follows.  Give  it  a high 
foundation  so  that  it  may  nowhere  come  in  contact  with  the  bro- 
ken stone-work  composing  the  floor;  for  if  it  is  sunk  in  this,  it  rots 
in  course  of  time,  then  settles  and  sags  forward,  and  so  breaks 
through  the  surface  of  the  stucco  covering. 

I have  now  explained  to  the  best  of  my  ability  the  subject  of 
walls,  and  the  preparation  of  the  different  kinds  of  material  em- 
ployed, with  their  advantages  and  disadvantages.  Next,  follow- 
ing the  guidance  of  Nature,  I shall  treat  of  the  frame- work  and 
the  kinds  of  wood  used  in  it,  showing  how  they  may  be  pro- 
cured of  a sort  that  will  not  give  way  as  time  goes  on. 


CHAPTER  IX 

TIMBER 

1.  Timber  should  be  felled  between  early  Autumn  and  the  time 
when  Favonius  begins  to  blow.  For  in  Spring  all  trees  become 
pregnant,  and  they  are  all  employing  their  natural  vigour  in  the 
production  of  leaves  and  of  the  fruits  that  return  every  year.  The 
requirements  of  that  season  render  them  empty  and  swollen,  and 
so  they  are  weak  and  feeble  because  of  their  looseness  of  texture. 
This  is  also  the  case  with  women  who  have  conceived.  Their  bod- 
ies are  not  considered  perfectly  healthy  until  the  child  is  born; 
hence,  pregnant  slaves,  when  offered  for  sale,  are  not  warranted 
sound,  because  the  fetus  as  it  grows  within  the  body  takes  to  itself 
as  nourishment  all  the  best  qualities  of  the  mother’s  food,  and  so 
the  stronger  it  becomes  as  the  full  time  for  birth  approaches,  the 
less  compact  it  allows  that  body  to  be  from  which  it  is  produced. 
After  the  birth  of  the  child,  what  was  heretofore  taken  to  pro- 
mote the  growth  of  another  creature  is  now  set  free  by  the  deliv- 
ery of  the  newborn,  and  the  channels  being  now  empty  and 
open,  the  body  will  take  it  in  by  lapping  up  its  juices,  and  thus 


59 


Chap.  IX]  TIMBER 

becomes  compact  and  returns  to  the  natural  strength  which  it 
had  before. 

2.  On  the  same  principle,  with  the  ripening  of  the  fruits  in 
Autumn  the  leaves  begin  to  wither  and  the  trees,  taking  up  their 
sap  from  the  earth  through  the  roots,  recover  themselves  and  are 
restored  to  their  former  solid  texture.  But  the  strong  air  of  win- 
ter compresses  and  solidifies  them  during  the  time  above  men- 
tioned. Consequently,  if  the  timber  is  felled  on  the  principle  and 
at  the  time  above  mentioned,  it  will  be  felled  at  the  proper  season. 

3.  In  felling  a tree  we  should  cut  into  the  trunk  of  it  to  the 
very  heart,  and  then  leave  it  standing  so  that  the  sap  may  drain 
out  drop  by  drop  throughout  the  whole  of  it.  In  this  way  the  use- 
less liquid  which  is  within  will  run  out  through  the  sapwood  in- 
stead of  having  to  die  in  a mass  of  decay,  thus  spoiling  the  quality 
of  the  timber.  Then  and  not  till  then,  the  tree  being  drained  dry 
and  the  sap  no  longer  dripping,  let  it  be  felled  and  it  will  be  in  the 
highest  state  of  usefulness. 

4.  That  this  is  so  may  be  seen  in  the  case  of  fruit  trees.  When 
these  are  tapped  at  the  base  and  pruned,  each  at  the  proper  time, 
they  pour  out  from  the  heart  through  the  tapholes  all  the  super- 
fluous and  corrupting  fluid  which  they  contain,  and  thus  the 
draining  process  makes  them  durable.  But  when  the  juices  of 
trees  have  no  means  of  escape,  they  clot  and  rot  in  them,  making 
the  trees  hollow  and  good  for  nothing.  Therefore,  if  the  draining 
process  does  not  exhaust  them  while  they  are  still  alive,  there  is 
no  doubt  that,  if  the  same  principle  is  followed  in  felling  them  for 
timber,  they  will  last  a long  time  and  be  very  useful  in  buildings. 

5.  Trees  vary  and  are  unlike  one  another  in  their  qualities. 
Thus  it  is  with  the  oak,  elm,  poplar,  cypress,  fir,  and  the  others 
which  are  most  suitable  to  use  in  buildings.  The  oak,  for  instance, 
has  not  the  efficacy  of  the  fir,  nor  the  cypress  that  of  the  elm.  Nor 
in  the  case  of  other  trees,  is  it  natural  that  they  should  be  alike; 
but  the  individual  kinds  are  effective  in  building,  some  in  one 
way,  some  in  another,  owing  to  the  different  properties  of  their 
elements. 


60 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  II 


6.  To  begin  with  fir:  it  contains  a great  deal  of  air  and  fire  with 
very  little  moisture  and  the  earthy,  so  that,  as  its  natural  prop- 
erties are  of  the  lighter  class,  it  is  not  heavy.  Hence,  its  consist- 
ence being  naturally  stiff,  it  does  not  easily  bend  under  the  load, 
and  keeps  its  straightness  when  used  in  the  framework.  But  it 
contains  so  much  heat  that  it  generates  and  encourages  decay, 
which  spoils  it;  and  it  also  kindles  fire  quickly  because  of  the  air 
in  its  body,  which  is  so  open  that  it  takes  in  fire  and  so  gives  out 
a great  flame. 

7.  The  part  which  is  nearest  to  the  earth  before  the  tree  is  cut 
down  takes  up  moisture  through  the  roots  from  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  and  hence  is  without  knots  and  is  “clear.”  But 
the  upper  part,  on  account  of  the  great  heat  in  it,  throws  up 
branches  into  the  air  through  the  knots;  and  this,  when  it  is  cut 
off  about  twenty  feet  from  the  ground  and  then  hewn,  is  called 
“ knot  wood  ” because  of  its  hardness  and  knottiness.  The  lowest 
part,  after  the  tree  is  cut  down  and  the  sapwood  of  the  same 
thrown  away,  is  split  up  into  four  pieces  and  prepared  for  joiner’s 
work,  and  so  is  called  “clearstock.” 

8.  Oak,  on  the  other  hand,  having  enough  and  to  spare  of  the 
earthy  among  its  elements,  and  containing  but  little  moisture,  air, 
and  fire,  lasts  for  an  unlimited  period  when  buried  in  under- 
ground structures.  It  follows  that  when  exposed  to  moisture,  as 
its  texture  is  not  loose  and  porous,  it  cannot  take  in  liquid  on  ac- 
count of  its  compactness,  but,  withdrawing  from  the  moisture, 
it  resists  it  and  warps,  thus  making  cracks  in  the  structures  in 
which  it  is  used. 

9.  The  winter  oak,  being  composed  of  a moderate  amount  of 
all  the  elements,  is  very  useful  in  buildings,  but  when  in  a moist 
place,  it  takes  in  water  to  its  centre  through  its  pores,  its  air  and 
fire  being  expelled  by  the  influence  of  the  moisture,  and  so  it  rots. 
The  Turkey  oak  and  the  beech,  both  containing  a mixture  of 
moisture,  fire,  and  the  earthy,  with  a great  deal  of  air,  through 
this  loose  texture  take  in  moisture  to  their  centre  and  soon  decay. 
White  and  black  poplar,  as  well  as  willow,  linden,  and  the  agnus 


Chap.  IX] 


TIMBER 


61 


castus,  containing  an  abundance  of  fire  and  air,  a moderate 
amount  of  moisture,  and  only  a small  amount  of  the  earthy,  are 
composed  of  a mixture  which  is  proportionately  rather  light, 
and  so  they  are  of  great  service  from  their  stiffness.  Although  on 
account  of  the  mixture  of  the  earthy  in  them  they  are  not  hard, 
yet  their  loose  texture  makes  them  gleaming  white,  and  they  are 
a convenient  material  to  use  in  carving. 

10.  The  alder,  which  is  produced  close  by  river  banks,  and 
which  seems  to  be  altogether  useless  as  building  material,  has 
really  excellent  qualities.  It  is  composed  of  a very  large  propor- 
tion of  air  and  fire,  not  much  of  the  earthy,  and  only  a little  mois- 
ture. Hence,  in  swampy  places,  alder  piles  driven  close  together 
beneath  the  foundations  of  buildings  take  in  the  water  which  their 
own  consistence  lacks  and  remain  imperishable  forever,  support- 
ing structures  of  enormous  weight  and  keeping  them  from  decay. 
Thus  a material  which  cannot  last  even  a little  while  above 
ground,  endures  for  a long  time  when  covered  with  moisture. 

11.  One  can  see  this  at  its  best  in  Ravenna;  for  there  all  the 
buildings,  both  public  and  private,  have  piles  of  this  sort  beneath 
their  foundations.  The  elm  and  the  ash  contain  a very  great 
amount  of  moisture,  a minimum  of  air  and  fire,  and  a moderate 
mixture  of  the  earthy  in  their  composition.  When  put  in  shape 
for  use  in  buildings  they  are  tough  and,  having  no  stiffness  on  ac- 
count of  the  weight  of  moisture  in  them,  soon  bend.  But  when 
they  become  dry  with  age,  or  are  allowed  to  lose  their  sap  and  die 
standing  in  the  open,  they  get  harder,  and  from  their  toughness 
supply  a strong  material  for  dowels  to  be  used  in  joints  and  other 
articulations. 

12.  The  hornbeam,  which  has  a very  small  amount  of  fire  and 
of  the  earthy  in  its  composition,  but  a very  great  proportion  of 
air  and  moisture,  is  not  a wood  that  breaks  easily,  and  is  very  con- 
venient to  handle.  Hence,  the  Greeks  call  it  “zygia,”  because 
they  make  of  it  yokes  for  their  draught-animals,  and  their  word 
for  yoke  is  £vya.  Cypress  and  pine  are  also  just  as  admirable; 
for  although  they  contain  an  abundance  of  moisture  mixed  with 


62 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  II 


an  equivalent  composed  of  all  the  other  elements,  and  so  are  apt 
to  warp  when  used  in  buildings  on  account  of  this  superfluity  of 
moisture,  yet  they  can  be  kept  to  a great  age  without  rotting, 
because  the  liquid  contained  within  their  substances  has  a bitter 
taste  which  by  its  pungency  prevents  the  entrance  of  decay  or  of 
those  little  creatures  which  are  destructive.  Hence,  buildings 
made  of  these  kinds  of  wood  last  for  an  unending  period  of  time. 

13.  The  cedar  and  the  juniper  tree  have  the  same  uses  and  good 
qualities,  but,  while  the  cypress  and  pine  yield  resin,  from  the 
cedar  is  produced  an  oil  called  cedar-oil.  Books  as  well  as  other 
things  smeared  with  this  are  not  hurt  by  worms  or  decay.  The 
foliage  of  this  tree  is  like  that  of  the  cypress  but  the  grain  of  the 
wood  is  straight.  The  statue  of  Diana  in  the  temple  at  Ephesus 
is  made  of  it,  and  so  are  the  coffered  ceilings  both  there  and  in  all 
other  famous  fanes,  because  that  wood  is  everlasting.  The  tree 
grows  chiefly  in  Crete,  Africa,  and  in  some  districts  of  Syria. 

14.  The  larch,  known  only  to  the  people  of  the  towns  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Po  and  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  is  not  only 
preserved  from  decay  and  the  worm  by  the  great  bitterness  of  its 
sap,  but  also  it  cannot  be  kindled  with  fire  nor  ignite  of  itself,  un- 
less like  stone  in  a limekiln  it  is  burned  with  other  wood.  And  even 
then  it  does  not  take  fire  nor  produce  burning  coals,  but  after  a 
long  time  it  slowly  consumes  away.  This  is  because  there  is  a very 
small  proportion  of  the  elements  of  fire  and  air  in  its  composition, 
which  is  a dense  and  solid  mass  of  moisture  and  the  earthy,  so 
that  it  has  no  open  pores  through  which  fire  can  find  its  way;  but 
it  repels  the  force  of  fire  and  does  not  let  itself  be  harmed  by  it 
quickly.  Further,  its  weight  will  not  let  it  float  in  water,  so  that 
when  transported  it  is  loaded  on  shipboard  or  on  rafts  made  of  fir. 

15.  It  is  worth  while  to  know  how  this  wood  was  discovered. 
The  divine  Caesar,  being  with  his  army  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Alps,  and  having  ordered  the  towns  to  furnish  supplies,  the 
inhabitants  of  a fortified  stronghold  there,  called  Larignum, 
trusting  in  the  natural  strength  of  their  defences,  refused  to  obey 
his  command.  So  the  general  ordered  his  forces  to  the  assault. 


Chap.  IXJ 


TIMBER 


63 


In  front  of  the  gate  of  this  stronghold  there  was  a tower,  made  of 
beams  of  this  wood  laid  in  alternating  directions  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  like  a funeral  pyre,  and  built  high,  so  that  they 
could  drive  off  an  attacking  party  by  throwing  stakes  and  stones 
from  the  top.  When  it  was  observed  that  they  had  no  other  mis- 
siles than  stakes,  and  that  these  could  not  be  hurled  very  far  from 
the  wall  on  account  of  the  weight,  orders  were  given  to  approach 
and  to  throw  bundles  of  brushwood  and  lighted  torches  at  this 
outwork.  These  the  soldiers  soon  got  together. 

16.  The  flames  soon  kindled  the  brushwood  which  lay  about 
that  wooden  structure  and,  rising  towards  heaven,  made  every- 
body think  that  the  whole  pile  had  fallen.  But  when  the  fire  had 
burned  itself  out  and  subsided,  and  the  tower  appeared  to  view 
entirely  uninjured,  Caesar  in  amazement  gave  orders  that  they 
should  be  surrounded  with  a palisade,  built  beyond  the  range  of 
missiles.  So  the  townspeople  were  frightened  into  surrendering, 
and  were  then  asked  where  that  wood  came  from  which  was  not 
harmed  by  fire.  They  pointed  to  trees  of  the  kind  under  discus- 
sion, of  which  there  are  very  great  numbers  in  that  vicinity.  And 
so,  as  that  stronghold  was  called  Larignum,  the  wood  was  called 
larch.  It  is  transported  by  way  of  the  Po  to  Ravenna,  and  is  to 
be  had  in  Fano,  Pesaro,  Ancona,  and  the  other  towns  in  that 
neighbourhood.  If  there  were  only  a ready  method  of  carrying 
this  material  to  Rome,  it  would  be  of  the  greatest  use  in  buildings; 
if  not  for  general  purposes,  yet  at  least  if  the  boards  used  in  the 
eaves  running  round  blocks  of  houses  were  made  of  it,  the  build- 
ings would  be  free  from  the  danger  of  fire  spreading  across  to 
them,  because  such  boards  can  neither  take  fire  from  flames  or 
from  burning  coals,  nor  ignite  spontaneously. 

17.  The  leaves  of  these  trees  are  like  those  of  the  pine;  timber 
from  them  comes  in  long  lengths,  is  as  easily  wrought  in  joiner’s 
work  as  is  the  clearwood  of  fir,  and  contains  a liquid  resin,  of  the 
colour  of  Attic  honey,  which  is  good  for  consumptives. 

With  regard  to  the  different  kinds  of  timber,  I have  now  ex- 
plained of  what  natural  properties  they  appear  to  be  composed. 


64 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  II 


and  how  they  were  produced.  It  remains  to  consider  the  question 
why  the  highland  fir,  as  it  is  called  in  Rome,  is  inferior,  while  the 
lowland  fir  is  extremely  useful  in  buildings  so  far  as  durability  is 
concerned;  and  further  to  explain  how  it  is  that  their  bad  or  good 
qualities  seem  to  be  due  to  the  peculiarities  of  their  neighbour- 
hood, so  that  this  subject  may  be  clearer  to  those  who  examine  it. 


CHAPTER  X 

HIGHLAND  AND  LOWLAND  FIR 

1.  The  first  spurs  of  the  Apennines  arise  from  the  Tuscan  sea 
between  the  Alps  and  the  most  distant  borders  of  Tuscany.  The 
mountain  range  itself  bends  round  and,  almost  touching  the 
shores  of  the  Adriatic  in  the  middle  of  the  curve,  completes  its 
circuit  by  extending  to  the  strait  on  the  other  shore.  Hence,  this 
side  of  the  curve,  sloping  towards  the  districts  of  Tuscany  and 
Campania,  lies  basking  in  the  sun,  being  constantly  exposed  to 
the  full  force  of  its  rays  all  day.  Rut  the  further  side,  sloping  to- 
wards the  Upper  Sea  and  having  a northern  exposure,  is  constantly 
shrouded  in  shadowy  darkness.  Hence  the  trees  which  grow  on 
that  side,  being  nourished  by  the  moisture,  not  only  themselves 
attain  to  a very  large  size,  but  their  fibre  too,  filled  full  of  mois- 
ture, is  swollen  and  distended  with  abundance  of  liquid.  When 
they  lose  their  vitality  after  being  felled  and  hewn,  the  fibre  re- 
tains its  stiffness,  and  the  trees  as  they  dry  become  hollow  and 
frail  on  account  of  their  porosity,  and  hence  cannot  last  when 
used  in  buildings. 

2.  But  trees  which  grow  in  places  facing  the  course  of  the  sun 
are  not  of  porous  fibre  but  are  solid,  being  drained  by  the  dryness; 
for  the  sun  absorbs  moisture  and  draws  it  out  of  trees  as  well  as 
out  of  the  earth.  The  trees  in  sunny  neighbourhoods,  therefore, 
being  solidified  by  the  compact  texture  of  their  fibre,  and  not 
being  porous  from  moisture,  are  very  useful,  so  far  as  durability 
goes,  when  they  are  hewn  into  timber.  Hence  the  lowland  firs, 


65 


Chap.  X]  HIGHLAND  AND  LOWLAND  FIR 

being  conveyed  from  sunny  places,  are  better  than  those  high- 
land firs,  which  are  brought  here  from  shady  places. 

3.  To  the  best  of  my  mature  consideration,  I have  now  treated 
the  materials  which  are  necessary  in  the  construction  of  buildings, 
the  proportionate  amount  of  the  elements  which  are  seen  to  be 
contained  in  their  natural  composition,  and  the  points  of  excel- 
lence and  defects  of  each  kind,  so  that  they  may  be  not  unknown 
to  those  who  are  engaged  in  building.  Thus  those  who  can  follow 
the  directions  contained  in  this  treatise  will  be  better  informed 
in  advance,  and  able  to  select,  among  the  different  kinds,  those 
which  will  be  of  use  in  their  works.  Therefore,  since  the  prelimin- 
aries have  been  explained,  the  buildings  themselves  will  be 
treated  in  the  remaining  books;  and  first,  as  due  order  requires,  I 
shall  in  the  next  book  write  of  the  temples  of  the  immortal  gods 
and  their  symmetrical  proportions. 


BOOK  III 


BOOK  III 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  Apollo  at  Delphi,  through  the  oracular  utterance  of  his 
priestess,  pronounced  Socrates  the  wisest  of  men.  Of  him  it  is  re- 
lated that  he  said  with  sagacity  and  great  learning  that  the  hu- 
man breast  should  have  been  furnished  with  open  windows,  so 
that  men  might  not  keep  their  feelings  concealed,  but  have  them 
open  to  the  view.  Oh  that  nature,  following  his  idea,  had  con- 
structed them  thus  unfolded  and  obvious  to  the  view!  For  if  it 
had  been  so,  not  merely  the  virtues  and  vices  of  the  mind  would 
be  easily  visible,  but  also  its  knowledge  of  branches  of  study,  dis- 
played to  the  contemplation  of  the  eyes,  would  not  need  testing 
by  untrustworthy  powers  of  judgement,  but  a singular  and  last- 
ing influence  would  thus  be  lent  to  the  learned  and  wise.  How- 
ever, since  they  are  not  so  constructed,  but  are  as  nature  willed 
them  to  be,  it  is  impossible  for  men,  while  natural  abilities  are 
concealed  in  the  breast,  to  form  a judgement  on  the  quality  of 
the  knowledge  of  the  arts  which  is  thus  deeply  hidden.  And  if 
artists  themselves  testify  to  their  own  skill,  they  can  never,  unless 
they  are  wealthy  or  famous  from  the  age  of  their  studios,  or  unless 
they  are  also  possessed  of  the  public  favour  and  of  eloquence, 
have  an  influence  commensurate  with  their  devotion  to  their 
pursuits,  so  that  people  may  believe  them  to  have  the  know- 
ledge which  they  profess  to  have. 

2.  In  particular  we  can  learn  this  from  the  case  of  the  sculptors 
and  painters  of  antiquity.  Those  among  them  who  were  marked 
by  high  station  or  favourably  recommended  have  come  down  to 
posterity  with  a name  that  will  last  forever;  for  instance,  Myron, 
Polycletus,  Phidias,  Lysippus,  and  the  others  who  have  attained 
to  fame  by  their  art.  For  they  acquired  it  by  the  execution  of 
works  for  great  states  or  for  kings  or  for  citizens  of  rank.  But 


70 


INTRODUCTION 


[Book  III 


those  who,  being  men  of  no  less  enthusiasm,  natural  ability,  and 
dexterity  than  those  famous  artists,  and  who  executed  no  less 
perfectly  finished  works  for  citizens  of  low  station,  are  unremem- 
bered, not  because  they  lacked  diligence  or  dexterity  in  their  art, 
but  because  fortune  failed  them;  for  instance,  Teleas  of  Athens, 
Chion  of  Corinth,  Myager  the  Phocaean,  Pharax  of  Ephesus, 
Boedas  of  Byzantium,  and  many  others.  Then  there  were  painters 
like  Aristomenes  of  Thasos,  Polycles  and  Andron  of  Ephesus, 
Theo  of  Magnesia,  and  others  who  were  not  deficient  in  diligence 
or  enthusiasm  for  their  art  or  in  dexterity,  but  whose  narrow 
means  or  ill-luck,  or  the  higher  position  of  their  rivals  in  the  strug- 
gle for  honour,  stood  in  the  way  of  their  attaining  distinction. 

3.  Of  course,  we  need  not  be  surprised  if  artistic  excellence  goes 
unrecognized  on  account  of  being  unknown;  but  there  should  be 
the  greatest  indignation  when,  as  often,  good  judges  are  flattered 
by  the  charm  of  social  entertainments  into  an  approbation  which 
is  a mere  pretence.  Now  if,  as  Socrates  wished,  our  feelings,  opin- 
ions, and  knowledge  gained  by  study  had  been  manifest  and  clear 
to  see,  popularity  and  adulation  would  have  no  influence,  but 
men  who  had  reached  the  height  of  knowledge  by  means  of  cor- 
rect and  definite  courses  of  study,  would  be  given  commissions 
without  any  effort  on  their  part.  However,  since  such  things 
are  not  plain  and  apparent  to  the  view,  as  we  think  they  should 
have  been,  and  since  I observe  that  the  uneducated  rather  than 
the  educated  are  in  higher  favour,  thinking  it  beneath  me  to  en- 
gage with  the  uneducated  in  the  struggle  for  honour,  I prefer  to 
show  the  excellence  of  our  department  of  knowledge  by  the  pub- 
lication of  this  treatise. 

4.  In  my  first  book,  Emperor,  I described  to  you  the  art,  with 
its  points  of  excellence,  the  different  kinds  of  training  with  which 
the  architect  ought  to  be  equipped,  adding  the  reasons  why  he 
ought  to  be  skilful  in  them,  and  I divided  up  the  subject  of  archi- 
tecture as  a whole  among  its  departments,  duly  defining  the  lim- 
its of  each.  Next,  as  was  preeminent  and  necessary,  I explained 
on  scientific  principles  the  method  of  selecting  healthy  sites  for 


INTRODUCTION 


71 


fortified  towns,  pointed  out  by  geometrical  figures  the  different 
winds  and  the  quarters  from  which  they  blow,  and  showed  the 
proper  way  to  lay  out  the  lines  of  streets  and  rows  of  houses 
within  the  walls.  Here  I fixed  the  end  of  my  first  book.  In  the  sec- 
ond, on  building  materials,  I treated  their  various  advantages  in 
structures,  and  the  natural  properties  of  which  they  are  composed. 
In  this  third  book  I shall  speak  of  the  temples  of  the  immortal 
gods,  describing  and  explaining  them  in  the  proper  manner. 


CHAPTER  I 


ON  symmetry:  in  temples  and  in  the  human  body 

1.  The  design  of  a temple  depends  on  symmetry,  the  princi- 
ples of  which  must  be  most  carefully  observed  by  the  architect. 
They  are  due  to  proportion,  in  Greek  avaXo^ia.  Proportion  is 
a correspondence  among  the  measures  of  the  members  of  an  en- 
tire work,  and  of  the  whole  to  a certain  part  selected  as  standard. 
From  this  result  the  principles  of  symmetry.  Without  symme- 
try and  proportion  there  can  be  no  principles  in  the  design  of  any 
temple;  that  is,  if  there  is  no  precise  relation  between  its  members, 
as  in  the  case  of  those  of  a well  shaped  man. 

2.  For  the  human  body  is  so  designed  by  nature  that  the  face, 
from  the  chin  to  the  top  of  the  forehead  and  the  lowest  roots  of 
the  hair,  is  a tenth  part  of  the  whole  height;  the  open  hand  from 
the  wrist  to  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger  is  just  the  same;  the  head 
from  the  chin  to  the  crown  is  an  eighth,  and  with  the  neck  and 
shoulder  from  the  top  of  the  breast  to  the  lowest  roots  of  the  hair 
is  a sixth;  from  the  middle  of  the  breast  to  the  summit  of  the 
crown  is  a fourth.  If  we  take  the  height  of  the  face  itself,  the  dis- 
tance from  the  bottom  of  the  chin  to  the  under  side  of  the  nostrils 
is  one  third  of  it;  the  nose  from  the  under  side  of  the  nostrils  to  a 
line  between  the  eyebrows  is  the  same;  from  there  to  the  lowest 
roots  of  the  hair  is  also  a third,  comprising  the  forehead.  The 
length  of  the  foot  is  one  sixth  of  the  height  of  the  body;  of  the 
forearm,  one  fourth;  and  the  breadth  of  the  breast  is  also  one 
fourth.  The  other  members,  too,  have  their  own  symmetrical 
proportions,  and  it  was  by  employing  them  that  the  famous 
painters  and  sculptors  of  antiquity  attained  to  great  and  endless 
renown. 

3.  Similarly,  in  the  members  of  a temple  there  ought  to  be  the 
greatest  harmony  in  the  symmetrical  relations  of  the  different 


Chap.  I] 


ON  SYMMETRY 


73 


parts  to  the  general  magnitude  of  the  whole.  Then  again,  in  the 
human  body  the  central  point  is  naturally  the  navel.  For  if  a 
man  be  placed  flat  on  his  back,  with  his  hands  and  feet  extended, 
and  a pair  of  compasses  centred  at  his  navel,  the  fingers  and  toes 
of  his  two  hands  and  feet  will  touch  the  circumference  of  a cir- 
cle described  therefrom.  And  just  as  the  human  body  yields  a 
circular  outline,  so  too  a square  figure  may  be  found  from  it.  For 
if  we  measure  the  distance  from  the  soles  of  the  feet  to  the  top  of 
the  head,  and  then  apply  that  measure  to  the  outstretched  arms, 
the  breadth  will  be  found  to  be  the  same  as  the  height,  as  in  the 
case  of  plane  surfaces  which  are  perfectly  square. 

4.  Therefore,  since  nature  has  designed  the  human  body  so 
that  its  members  are  duly  proportioned  to  the  frame  as  a whole, 
it  appears  that  the  ancients  had  good  reason  for  their  rule,  that  in 
perfect  buildings  the  different  members  must  be  in  exact  sym- 
metrical relations  to  the  whole  general  scheme.  Hence,  while 
transmitting  to  us  the  proper  arrangements  for  buildings  of  all 
kinds,  they  were  particularly  careful  to  do  so  in  the  case  of  tem- 
ples of  the  gods,  buildings  in  which  merits  and  faults  usually  last 
forever. 

5.  Further,  it  was  from  the  members  of  the  body  that  they  de- 
rived the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  measures  which  are  obviously 
necessary  in  all  works,  as  the  finger,  palm,  foot,  and  cubit.  These 
they  apportioned  so  as  to  form  the  “perfect  number,”  called  in 
Greek  reXeiov , and  as  the  perfect  number  the  ancients  fixed 
upon  ten.  For  it  is  from  the  number  of  the  fingers  of  the  hand 
that  the  palm  is  found,  and  the  foot  from  the  palm.  Again,  while 
ten  is  naturally  perfect,  as  being  made  up  by  the  fingers  of  the  two 
palms,  Plato  also  held  that  this  number  was  perfect  because 
ten  is  composed  of  the  individual  units,  called  by  the  Greeks 
fiovdSes.  But  as  soon  as  eleven  or  twelve  is  reached,  the  num- 
bers, being  excessive,  cannot  be  perfect  until  they  come  to  ten  for 
the  second  time;  for  the  component  parts  of  that  number  are  the 
individual  units. 

6.  The  mathematicians,  however,  maintaining  a different  view, 


74 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  III 


have  said  that  the  perfect  number  is  six,  because  this  number  is 
composed  of  integral  parts  which  are  suited  numerically  to  their 
method  of  reckoning:  thus,  one  is  one  sixth;  two  is  one  third; 
three  is  one  half;  four  is  two  thirds,  or  8faoipo<;  as  they  call  it; 
five  is  five  sixths,  called  irevrapiOLpo^ ; and  six  is  the  perfect  num- 
ber. As  the  number  goes  on  growing  larger,  the  addition  of  a unit 
above  six  is  the  e^e/cTo?;  eight,  formed  by  the  addition  of  a 
third  part  of  six,  is  the  integer  and  a third,  called  cttit/mto?;  the 
addition  of  one  half  makes  nine,  the  integer  and  a half,  termed 
r)/uo\io<;;  the  addition  of  two  thirds,  making  the  number  ten, 
is  the  integer  and  two  thirds,  which  they  call  €7rtSt>ot/?o?;  in 
the  number  eleven,  where  five  are  added,  we  have  the  five  sixths, 
called  eVt7re/x7rTo?;  finally,  twelve,  being  composed  of  the  two 
simple  integers,  is  called  BLirXdam. 

7.  And  further,  as  the  foot  is  one  sixth  of  a man’s  height,  the 
height  of  the  body  as  expressed  in  number  of  feet  being  limited  to 
six,  they  held  that  this  was  the  perfect  number,  and  observed  that 
the  cubit  consisted  of  six  palms  or  of  twenty-four  fingers.  This 
principle  seems  to  have  been  followed  by  the  states  of  Greece.  As 
the  cubit  consisted  of  six  palms,  they  made  the  drachma,  which 
they  used  as  their  unit,  consist  in  the  same  way  of  six  bronze  coins, 
like  our  asses , which  they  call  obols;  and,  to  correspond  to  the  fin- 
gers, divided  the  drachma  into  twenty-four  quarter-obols,  which 
some  call  dichalca  others  trichalca. 

8.  Rut  our  countrymen  at  first  fixed  upon  the  ancient  number 
and  made  ten  bronze  pieces  go  to  the  denarius,  and  this  is  the 
origin  of  the  name  which  is  applied  to  the  denarius  to  this  day. 
And  the  fourth  part  of  it,  consisting  of  two  asses  and  half  of  a 
third,  they  called  “sesterce.”  But  later,  observing  that  six  and 
ten  were  both  of  them  perfect  numbers,  they  combined  the  two, 
and  thus  made  the  most  perfect  number,  sixteen.  They  found 
their  authority  for  this  in  the  foot.  For  if  we  take  two  palms 
from  the  cubit,  there  remains  the  foot  of  four  palms;  but  the  palm 
contains  four  fingers.  Hence  the  foot  contains  sixteen  fingers,  and 
the  denarius  the  same  number  of  bronze  asses. 


75 


Chap.  II]  CLASSIFICATION  OF  TEMPLES 

9.  Therefore,  if  it  is  agreed  that  number  was  found  out  from 
the  human  fingers,  and  that  there  is  a symmetrical  correspondence 
between  the  members  separately  and  the  entire  form  of  the  body, 
in  accordance  with  a certain  part  selected  as  standard,  we  can 
have  nothing  but  respect  for  those  who,  in  constructing  temples 
of  the  immortal  gods,  have  so  arranged  the  members  of  the  works 
that  both  the  separate  parts  and  the  whole  design  may  harmon- 
ize in  their  proportions  and  symmetry. 


CHAPTER  II 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  TEMPLES 

1.  There  are  certain  elementary  forms  on  which  the  general 
aspect  of  a temple  depends.  First  there  is  the  temple  in  antis, 
or  mo?  ev  'TrapaGTa.GLv  as  it  is  called  in  Greek;  then  the  prostyle, 
amphiprostyle,  peripteral,  pseudodipteral,  dipteral,  and  hypae- 
thral.  These  different  forms  may  be  described  as  follows. 

2.  It  will  be  a temple  in  antis  when  it  has  antae  carried  out  in 
front  of  the  walls  which  enclose  the  cella,  and  in  the  middle,  be- 
tween the  antae,  two  columns,  and  over  them  the  pediment  con- 
structed in  the  symmetrical  proportions  to  be  described  later  in 
this  work.  An  example  will  be  found  at  the  Three  Fortunes,  in 
that  one  of  the  three  which  is  nearest  the  Colline  gate. 

S.  The  prostyle  is  in  all  respects  like  the  temple  in  antis,  except 
that  at  the  corners,  opposite  the  antae,  it  has  two  columns,  and 
that  it  has  architraves  not  only  in  front,  as  in  the  case  of  the  tem- 
ple in  antis,  but  also  one  to  the  right  and  one  to  the  left  in  the 
wings.  An  example  of  this  is  the  temple  of  Jove  and  Faunus  in 
the  Island  of  the  Tiber. 

4.  The  amphiprostyle  is  in  all  other  respects  like  the  prostyle, 
but  has  besides,  in  the  rear,  the  same  arrangement  of  columns  and 
pediment. 

5.  A temple  will  be  peripteral  that  has  six  columns  in  front  and 
six  in  the  rear,  with  eleven  on  each  side  including  the  corner  col- 


76 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  ITT 


ft 


TEMPLE  IN  ANTO 


AMPH1PROSTYLE 


TEMPLE  AT  PRUNE 

PERIPTERAL 


P5E.VDQDIPTERAL 


DIPTERAL 


THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  TEMPLES  ACCORDING  TO  THE  ARRANGEMENTS 
OF  THE  COLONNADES 


umns.  Let  the  columns  be  so  placed  as  to  leave  a space,  the  width 
of  an  intercolumniation,  all  round  between  the  walls  and  the  rows 
of  columns  on  the  outside,  thus  forming  a walk  round  the  cella  of 


Chap.  Ill  CLASSIFICATION  OF  TEMPLES 


77 


THE  HYPAETHRAL  TEMPLE 


Templl  or 

APOLLO  D1DYMAEVS  NEAR  MILETYS 

<?  9 „ W 3>  *P  g>  60  IDO  \2t>  140 

SCALE  OF  FEET 


THE  HYPAETHRAL  TEMPLE  OF  VITRUVIUS  COMPARED  WITH  THE  PARTHENON 
AND  THE  TEMPLE  OF  APOLLO  NEAR  MILETUS 


78 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  III 


the  temple,  as  in  the  cases  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator  by  Her- 
modorus  in  the  Portico  of  Metellus,  and  the  Marian  temple  of 
Honour  and  Valour  constructed  by  Mucius,  which  has  no  portico 
in  the  rear. 

6.  The  pseudodipteral  is  so  constructed  that  in  front  and  in  the 
rear  there  are  in  each  case  eight  columns,  with  fifteen  on  each 
side,  including  the  corner  columns.  The  walls  of  the  cella  in  front 
and  in  the  rear  should  be  directly  over  against  the  four  middle 
columns.  Thus  there  will  be  a space,  the  width  of  two  intercol- 
umniations  plus  the  thickness  of  the  lower  diameter  of  a column, 
all  round  between  the  walls  and  the  rows  of  columns  on  the  out- 
side. There  is  no  example  of  this  in  Rome,  but  at  Magnesia  there 
is  the  temple  of  Diana  by  Hermogenes,  and  that  of  Apollo  at 
Alabanda  by  Mnesthes. 

7.  The  dipteral  also  is  octastyle  in  both  front  and  rear  porti- 
coes, but  it  has  two  rows  of  columns  all  round  the  temple,  like 
the  temple  of  Quirinus,  which  is  Doric,  and  the  temple  of  Diana  at 
Ephesus,  planned  by  Chersiphron,  which  is  Ionic. 

8.  The  hypaethral  is  decastyle  in  both  front  and  rear  porticoes. 
In  everything  else  it  is  the  same  as  the  dipteral,  but  inside  it  has 
two  tiers  of  columns  set  out  from  the  wall  all  round,  like  the  col- 
onnade of  a peristyle.  The  central  part  is  open  to  the  sky,  with- 
out a roof.  Folding  doors  lead  to  it  at  each  end,  in  the  porticoes 
in  front  and  in  the  rear.  There  is  no  example  of  this  sort  in  Rome, 
but  in  Athens  there  is  the  octastyle  in  the  precinct  of  the  Olym- 
pian. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  PROPORTIONS  OF  INTERCOLUMNIATIONS  AND  OF  COLUMNS 

1.  There  are  five  classes  of  temples,  designated  as  follows: 
pycnostyle,  with  the  columns  close  together;  systyle,  with  the 
intercolumniations  a little  wider;  diastyle,  more  open  still;  araeo- 
style,  farther  apart  than  they  ought  to  be;  eustyle,  with  the  in- 
tervals apportioned  just  right. 


Chap.  IH] 


PROPORTIONS 


79 


2.  The  pycnostyle  is  a temple  in  an  intercolumniation  of  which 
the  thickness  of  a column  and  a half  can  be  inserted : for  example, 
the  temple  of  the  Divine  Caesar,  that  of  Venus  in  Caesar’s  forum, 
and  others  constructed  like  them.  The  systyle  is  a temple  in  which 


THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  TEMPLES  ACCORDING  TO  INTERCOLUMNIATION 


80 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  III 


the  thickness  of  two  columns  can  be  placed  in  an  intercolumnia- 
tion,  and  in  which  the  plinths  of  the  bases  are  equivalent  to  the 
distance  between  two  plinths : for  example,  the  temple  of  Eques- 
trian Fortune  near  the  stone  theatre,  and  the  others  which  are 
constructed  on  the  same  principles. 

3.  These  two  kinds  have  practical  disadvantages.  When  the 
matrons  mount  the  steps  for  public  prayer  or  thanksgiving,  they 
cannot  pass  through  the  intercolumniations  with  their  arms  about 
one  another,  but  must  form  single  file;  then  again,  the  effect  of  the 
folding  doors  is  thrust  out  of  sight  by  the  crowding  of  the  col- 
umns, and  likewise  the  statues  are  thrown  into  shadow;  the  nar- 
row space  interferes  also  with  walks  round  the  temple. 

4.  The  construction  will  be  diastyle  when  we  can  insert  the 
thickness  of  three  columns  in  an  intercolumniation,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  temple  of  Apollo  and  Diana.  This  arrangement  involves 
the  danger  that  the  architraves  may  break  on  account  of  the  great 
width  of  the  intervals. 

5.  In  araeostyles  we  cannot  employ  stone  or  marble  for  the 
architraves,  but  must  have  a series  of  wooden  beams  laid  upon 
the  columns.  And  moreover,  in  appearance  these  temples  are 
clumsy-roofed,  low,  broad,  and  their  pediments  are  adorned  in  the 
Tuscan  fashion  with  statues  of  terra-cotta  or  gilt  bronze:  for  ex- 
ample, near  the  Circus  Maximus,  the  temple  of  Ceres  and  Pom- 
pey’s  temple  of  Hercules;  also  the  temple  on  the  Capitol. 

6.  An  account  must  now  be  given  of  the  eustyle,  which  is  the 
most  approved  class,  and  is  arranged  on  principles  developed  with 
a view  to  convenience,  beauty,  and  strength.  The  intervals 
should  be  made  as  wide  as  the  thickness  of  two  columns  and  a 
quarter,  but  the  middle  intercolumniations,  one  in  front  and  the 
other  in  the  rear,  should  be  of  the  thickness  of  three  columns. 
Thus  built,  the  effect  of  the  design  will  be  beautiful,  there  will  be 
no  obstruction  at  the  entrance,  and  the  walk  round  the  cella  will 
be  dignified. 

7.  The  rule  of  this  arrangement  may  be  set  forth  as  follows.  If 
a tetrastyle  is  to  be  built,  let  the  width  of  the  front  which  shall 


Chap.  HI] 


PROPORTIONS 


81 


THE  EV5TYLE  TEMPLE  THE  TEMPLE  AT  TECS 

ACCORDING  TO  VITRWIVS  IN  ASIA.  MINOR. 

VNJFORM  LOWER-  DIAMETER 


THE  EU STYLE  TEMPLE  OF  VITRUVIUS  COMPARED  WITH  THE 
TEMPLE  OF  TEOS 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  EH 


82 

have  already  been  determined  for  the  temple,  be  divided  into 
eleven  parts  and  a half,  not  including  the  substructures  and  the 
projections  of  the  bases;  if  it  is  to  be  of  six  columns,  into  eighteen 
parts.  If  an  octastyle  is  to  be  constructed,  let  the  front  be  divided 
into  twenty-four  parts  and  a half.  Then,  whether  the  temple  is 
to  be  tetrastyle,  hexastyle,  or  octastyle,  let  one  of  these  parts  be 
taken,  and  it  will  be  the  module.  The  thickness  of  the  columns 
will  be  equal  to  one  module.  Each  of  the  intercolumniations, 
except  those  in  the  middle,  will  measure  two  modules  and  a quar- 
ter. The  middle  intercolumniations  in  front  and  in  the  rear  will 
each  measure  three  modules.  The  columns  themselves  will  be 
nine  modules  and  a half  in  height.  As  a result  of  this  division,  the 
intercolumniations  and  the  heights  of  the  columns  will  be  in  due 
proportion. 

8.  We  have  no  example  of  this  in  Rome,  but  at  Teos  in  Asia 
Minor  there  is  one  which  is  hexastyle,  dedicated  to  Father 
Bacchus. 

These  rules  for  symmetry  were  established  by  Hermogenes, 
who  was  also  the  first  to  devise  the  principle  of  the  pseudodipteral 
octastyle.  He  did  so  by  dispensing  with  the  inner  rows  of  thirty- 
eight  columns  which  belonged  to  the  symmetry  of  the  dipteral 
temple,  and  in  this  way  he  made  a saving  in  expense  and  labour. 
He  thus  provided  a much  wider  space  for  the  walk  round  the 
cella  between  it  and  the  columns,  and  without  detracting  at  all 
from  the  general  effect,  or  making  one  feel  the  loss  of  what  had 
been  really  superfluous,  he  preserved  the  dignity  of  the  whole 
work  by  his  new  treatment  of  it. 

9.  For  the  idea  of  the  pteroma  and  the  arrangement  of  the  col- 
umns round  a temple  were  devised  in  order  that  the  intercolum- 
niations might  give  the  imposing  effect  of  high  relief;  and  also, 
in  case  a multitude  of  people  should  be  caught  in  a heavy  shower 
and  detained,  that  they  might  have  in  the  temple  and  round 
the  cella  a wide  free  space  in  which  to  wait.  These  ideas  are 
developed,  as  I have  described,  in  the  pseudodipteral  arrapge- 
ment  of  a temple.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  Hermogenes  pro- 


Chap.  Ill] 


PROPORTIONS 


83 


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VITRUVIUS’  RULES  FOR  THE  DIAMETER  AND  HEIGHT  OF  COLUMNS  IN  THE  DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  TEMPLE 

COMPARED  WITH  ACTUAL  EXAMPLES 


84 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  III 


duced  results  which  exhibit  much  acute  ingenuity,  and  that  he 
left  sources  from  which  those  who  came  after  him  could  derive 
instructive  principles. 

10.  In  araeostyle  temples,  the  columns  should  be  constructed 
so  that  their  thickness  is  one  eighth  part  of  their  height.  In  the 
diastyle,  the  height  of  a column  should  be  measured  off  into  eight 
and  a half  parts,  and  the  thickness  of  the  column  fixed  at  one  of 
these  parts.  In  the  systyle,  let  the  height  be  divided  into  nine  and 
a half  parts,  and  one  of  these  given  to  the  thickness  of  the  column. 
In  the  pycnostyle,  the  height  should,  be  divided  into  ten  parts, 
and  one  of  these  used  for  the  thickness  of  the  column.  In 
the  eustyle  temple,  let  the  height  of  a column  be  divided,  as  in 
the  systyle,  into  nine  and  a half  parts,  and  let  one  part  be  taken 
for  the  thickness  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft.  With  these  dimen- 
sions we  shall  be  taking  into  account  the  proportions  of  the  inter- 
columniations. 

11.  For  the  thickness  of  the  shafts  must  be  enlarged  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  of  the  distance  between  the  columns.  In 
the  araeostyle,  for  instance,  if  only  a ninth  or  tenth  part  is  given 
to  the  thickness,  the  column  will  look  thin  and  mean,  because  the 
width  of  the  intercolumniations  is  such  that  the  air  seems  to  eat 
away  and  diminish  the  thickness  of  such  shafts.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  pycnostyles,  if  an  eighth  part  is  given  to  the  thickness,  it 
will  make  the  shaft  look  swollen  and  ungraceful,  because  the  in- 
tercolumniations are  so  close  to  each  other  and  so  narrow.  We 
must  therefore  follow  the  rules  of  symmetry  required  by  each 
kind  of  building.  Then,  too,  the  columns  at  the  corners  should 
be  made  thicker  than  the  others  by  a fiftieth  of  their  own  diame- 
ter, because  they  are  sharply  outlined  by  the  unobstructed  air 
round  them,  and  seem  to  the  beholder  more  slender  than  they  are. 
Hence,  we  must  counteract  the  ocular  deception  by  an  adjust- 
ment of  proportions. 

12.  Moreover,  the  diminution  in  the  top  of  a column  at  the 
necking  seems  to  be  regulated  on  the  following  principles:  if  a 
column  is  fifteen  feet  or  under,  let  the  thickness  at  the  bottom 


Chap.  Ill] 


PROPORTIONS 


85 


THE  DIMINUTION  OF  COLUMNS  IN  RELATION  TO  THEIR  DIMENSIONS 

OF  HEIGHT 


86 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  III 


be  divided  into  six  parts,  and  let  five  of  those  parts  form  the  thick- 
ness at  the  top.  If  it  is  from  fifteen  feet  to  twenty  feet,  let  the 
bottom  of  the  shaft  be  divided  into  six  and  a half  parts,  and  let 
five  and  a half  of  those  parts  be  the  upper  thickness  of  the  col- 
umn. In  a column  of  from  twenty  feet  to  thirty  feet,  let  the  bot- 
tom of  the  shaft  be  divided  into  seven  parts,  and  let  the  dimin- 
ished top  measure  six  of  these.  A column  of  from  thirty  to  forty 
feet  should  be  divided  at  the  bottom  into  seven  and  a half  parts, 
and,  on  the  principle  of  diminution,  have  six  and  a half  of  these 
at  the  top.  Columns  of  from  forty  feet  to  fifty  should  be 
divided  into  eight  parts,  and  diminish  to  seven  of  these  at  the  top 
of  the  shaft  under  the  capital.  In  the  case  of  higher  columns,  let 
the  diminution  be  determined  proportionally,  on  the  same  prin- 
ciples. 

13.  These  proportionate  enlargements  are  made  in  the  thick- 
ness of  columns  on  account  of  the  different  heights  to  which  the 
eye  has  to  climb.  For  the  eye  is  always  in  search  of  beauty,  and  if 
we  do  not  gratify  its  desire  for  pleasure  by  a proportionate  en- 
largement in  these  measures,  and  thus  make  compensation  for 
ocular  deception,  a clumsy  and  awkward  appearance  will  be  pre- 
sented to  the  beholder.  With  regard  to  the  enlargement  made  at 
the  middle  of  columns,  which  among  the  Greeks  is  called  eVraw, 
at  the  end  of  the  book  a figure  and  calculation  will  be  subjoined, 
showing  how  an  agreeable  and  appropriate  effect  may  be  pro- 
duced by  it. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  FOUNDATIONS  AND  SUBSTRUCTURES  OF  TEMPLES 

1.  The  foundations  of  these  works  should  be  dug  out  of  the 
solid  ground,  if  it  can  be  found,  and  carried  down  into  solid  ground 
as  far  as  the  magnitude  of  the  work  shall  seem  to  require,  and 
the  whole  substructure  should  be  as  solid  as  it  can  possibly  be 
laid.  Above  ground,  let  walls  be  laid  under  the  columns,  thicker 
by  one  half  than  the  columns  are  to  be,  so  that  the  lower  may  be 


Chap.  IV]  FOUNDATIONS  AND  SUBSTRUCTURES 


87 


The  entasis  as  given  by  Fra  Giocondo  in  the  edition  of  1511. 

!.  The  entasis  from  the  temple  of  Mars  Ultor  in  Rome  compared  with  Vignola’s  rule  for  entasis. 


88 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  III 


stronger  than  the  higher.  Hence  they  are  called  “stereobates”; 
for  they  take  the  load.  And  the  projections  of  the  bases  should 
not  extend  beyond  this  solid  foundation.  The  wall-thickness  is 
similarly  to  be  preserved  above  ground  likewise,  and  the  intervals 
between  these  walls  should  be  vaulted  over,  or  filled  with  earth 
rammed  down  hard,  to  keep  the  walls  well  apart. 

2.  If,  however,  solid  ground  cannot  be  found,  but  the  place 
proves  to  be  nothing  but  a heap  of  loose  earth  to  the  very  bottom, 
or  a marsh,  then  it  must  be  dug  up  and  cleared  out  and  set  with 
piles  made  of  charred  alder  or  olive  wood  or  oak,  and  these 
must  be  driven  down  by  machinery,  very  closely  together  like 
bridge-piles,  and  the  intervals  between  them  filled  in  with  char- 
coal, and  finally  the  foundations  are  to  be  laid  on  them  in  the 
most  solid  form  of  construction.  The  foundations  having  been 
brought  up  to  the  level,  the  stylobates  are  next  to  be  put  in  place. 

3.  The  columns  are  then  to  be  distributed  over  the  stylobates 
in  the  manner  above  described:  close  together  in  the  pycnostyle; 
in  the  systyle,  diastyle,  or  eustyle,  as  they  are  described  and  ar- 
ranged above.  In  araeostyle  temples  one  is  free  to  arrange  them 
as  far  apart  as  one  likes.  Still,  in  peripterals,  the  columns  should 
be  so  placed  that  there  are  twice  as  many  intercolumniations  on 
the  sides  as  there  are  in  front;  for  thus  the  length  of  the  work  will 
be  twice  its  breadth.  Those  who  make  the  number  of  columns 
double,  seem  to  be  in  error,  because  then  the  length  seems  to  be 
one  intercolumniation  longer  than  it  ought  to  be. 

4.  The  steps  in  front  must  be  arranged  so  that  there  shall  al- 
ways be  an  odd  number  of  them;  for  thus  the  right  foot,  with 
which  one  mounts  the  first  step,  will  also  be  the  first  to  reach  the 
level  of  the  temple  itself.  The  rise  of  such  steps  should,  I think, 
be  limited  to  not  more  than  ten  nor  less  than  nine  inches;  for 
then  the  ascent  will  not  be  difficult.  The  treads  of  the  steps  ought 
to  be  made  not  less  than  a foot  and  a half,  and  not  more  than  two 
feet  deep.  If  there  are  to  be  steps  running  all  round  the  temple, 
they  should  be  built  of  the  same  size. 

5.  But  if  a podium  is  to  be  built  on  three  sides  round  the 


chap.  IVJ  FOUNDATIONS  AND  SUBSTRUCTURES  89 

temple,  it  should  be  so  constructed  that  its  plinths,  bases,  dies, 
coronae,  and  cymatiumare  appropriate  to  the  actual  stylobate 
which  is  to  be  under  the  bases  of  the  columns. 


FRA  GIOCONDO’S  IDEA  OF  THE  “ SCAMILLI  IMPARES” 
(From  his  edition  of  Vitruvius,  Venice,  1511) 


The  level  of  the  stylobate  must  be  increased  along  the  mid- 
dle by  the  scamilli  impares;  for  if  it  is  laid  perfectly  level,  it 
will  look  to  the  eye  as  though  it  were  hollowed  a little.  At 
the  end  of  the  book  a figure  will  be  found,  with  a description 
showing  how  the  scamilli  may  be  made  to  suit  this  purpose. 


90 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  III 


CHAPTER  V 

PROPORTIONS  OF  THE  BASE,  CAPITALS,  AND  ENTABLATURE  IN 

THE  IONIC  ORDER 

1.  This  finished,  let  the  bases  of  the  columns  be  set  in  place, 
and  constructed  in  such  proportions  that  their  height,  including 
the  plinth,  may  be  half  the  thickness  of  a column,  and  their  pro- 
jection (called  in  Greek  i/cfiopd)  the  same.1  Thus  in  both  length 
and  breadth  it  will  be  one  and  one  half  thicknesses  of  a column. 

2.  If  the  base  is  to  be  in  the  Attic  style,  let  its  height  be  so  di- 
vided that  the  upper  part  shall  be  one  third  part  of  the  thickness 
of  the  column,  and  the  rest  left  for  the  plinth.  Then,  excluding 
the  plinth,  let  the  rest  be  divided  into  four  parts,  and  of  these  let 
one  fourth  constitute  the  upper  torus,  and  let  the  other  three  be 
divided  equally,  one  part  composing  the  lower  torus,  and  the 
other,  with  its  fillets,  the  scotia,  which  the  Greeks  call  t/oo^iAo?. 

3.  But  if  Ionic  bases  are  to  be  built,  their  proportions  shall  be 
so  determined  that  the  base  may  be  each  way  equal  in  breadth 
to  the  thickness  of  a column  plus  three  eighths  of  the  thickness; 
its  height  that  of  the  Attic  base,  and  so  too  its  plinth;  excluding 
the  plinth,  let  the  rest,  which  will  be  a third  part  of  the  thickness 
of  a column,  be  divided  into  seven  parts.  Three  of  these  parts 
constitute  the  torus  at  the  top,  and  the  other  four  are  to  be  di- 
vided equally,  one  part  constituting  the  upper  trochilus  with  its 
astragals  and  overhang,  the  other  left  for  the  lower  trochilus.  But 
the  lower  will  seem  to  be  larger,  because  it  will  project  to  the  edge 
of  the  plinth.  The  astragals  must  be  one  eighth  of  the  trochilus. 
The  projection  of  the  base  will  be  three  sixteenths  of  the  thick- 
ness of  a column. 

4.  The  bases  being  thus  finished  and  put  in  place,  the  columns 
are  to  be  put  in  place:  the  middle  columns  of  the  front  and  rear 
porticoes  perpendicular  to  their  own  centre;  the  corner  columns, 
and  those  which  are  to  extend  in  a line  from  them  along  the  sides 

1 Reading  aeque  tantarn  as  in  new  Rose.  Codd.  sextantem;  Schn.  quadrantem . 


Chap.  V] 


PROPORTIONS 


91 


THE  IONIC  ORDER  ACCORDING  TO  VITRUVIUS  COMPARED  WITH  THE 
ORDER  OF  THE  MAUSOLEUM  AT  HALICARNASSUS 


The  difference  between  the  Roman  and  the  Greek  relation  of  the  baluster-side  of  the 
capital  to  the  echinus  is  to  be  noted. 


92 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  m 


of  the  temple  to  the  right  and  left,  are  to  be  set  so  that  their  inner 
sides,  which  face  toward  the  cella  wall,  are  perpendicular,  but 
their  outer  sides  in  the  manner  which  I have  described  in  speak- 
ing of  their  diminution.  Thus,  in  the  design  of  the  temple  the 
fines  will  be  adjusted  with  due  regard  to  the  diminution. 

5.  The  shafts  of  the  columns  having  been  erected,  the  rule  for 
the  capitals  will  be  as  follows.  If  they  are  to  be  cushion-shaped, 
they  should  be  so  proportioned  that  the  abacus  is  in  length  and 
breadth  equivalent  to  the  thickness  of  the  shaft  at  its  bottom 
plus  one  eighteenth  thereof,  and  the  height  of  the  capital,  includ- 
ing the  volutes,  one  half  of  that  amount.  The  faces  of  the  volutes 
must  recede  from  the  edge  of  the  abacus  inwards  by  one  and  a 
half  eighteenths  of  that  same  amount.  Then,  the  height  of  the 
capital  is  to  be  divided  into  nine  and  a half  parts,  and  down 
along  the  abacus  on  the  four  sides  of  the  volutes,  down  along  the 
fillet  at  the  edge  of  the  abacus,  lines  called  “catheti”  are  to  be  let 
fall.  Then,  of  the  nine  and  a half  parts  let  one  and  a half  be  re- 
served for  the  height  of  the  abacus,  and  let  the  other  eight  be  used 
for  the  volutes. 

6.  Then  let  another  line  be  drawn,  beginning  at  a point  situ- 
ated at  a distance  of  one  and  a half  parts  toward  the  inside  from 
the  line  previously  let  fall  down  along  the  edge  of  the  abacus. 
Next,  let  these  lines  be  divided  in  such  a way  as  to  leave  four  and 
a half  parts  under  the  abacus;  then,  at  the  point  which  forms  the 
division  between  the  four  and  a half  parts  and  the  remaining  three 
and  a half,  fix  the  centre  of  the  eye,  and  from  that  centre  describe 
a circle  with  a diameter  equal  to  one  of  the  eight  parts.  This  will 
be  the  size  of  the  eye,  and  in  it  draw  a diameter  on  the  line  of  the 
“cathetus.”  Then,  in  describing  the  quadrants,  let  the  size  of  each 
be  successively  less,  by  half  the  diameter  of  the  eye,  than  that 
which  begins  under  the  abacus,  and  proceed  from  the  eye  until 
that  same  quadrant  under  the  abacus  is  reached. 

7.  The  height  of  the  capital  is  to  be  such  that,  of  the  nine  and 
a half  parts,  three  parts  are  below  the  level  of  the  astragal  at  the 
top  of  the  shaft,  and  the  rest,  omitting  the  abacus  and  the  chan- 


Chap.  V] 


PROPORTIONS 


93 


nel,  belongs  to  its  echinus.  The  projection  of  the  echinus  beyond 
the  fillet  of  the  abacus  should  be  equal  to  the  size  of  the  eye.  The 
projection  of  the  bands  of  the  cushions  should  be  thus  obtained: 
place  one  leg  of  a pair  of  compasses  in  the  centre  of  the  capital  and 
open  out  the  other  to  the  edge  of  the  echinus;  bring  this  leg  round 
and  it  will  touch  the  outer  edge  of  the  bands.  The  axes  of  the 
volutes  should  not  be  thicker  than  the  size  of  the  eye,  and  the 
volutes  themselves  should  be  channelled  out  to  a depth  which  is 
one  twelfth  of  their  height.  These  will  be  the  symmetrical  pro- 
portions for  capitals  of  columns  twenty-five  feet  high  and  less. 
For  higher  columns  the  other  proportions  will  be  the  same,  but 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  abacus  will  be  the  thickness  of  the 
lower  diameter  of  a column  plus  one  ninth  part  thereof;  thus, 
just  as  the  higher  the  column  the  less  the  diminution,  so  the  pro- 
jection of  its  capital  is  proportionately  increased  and  its  breadth 1 
is  correspondingly  enlarged. 

8.  With  regard  to  the  method  of  describing  volutes,  at  the  end 
of  the  book  a figure  will  be  subjoined  and  a calculation  showing 
how  they  may  be  described  so  that  their  spirals  may  be  true  to 
the  compass. 

The  capitals  having  been  finished  and  set  up  in  due  propor- 
tion to  the  columns  (not  exactly  level  on  the  columns,  however, 
but  with  the  same  measured  adjustment,  so  that  in  the  upper 
members  there  may  be  an  increase  corresponding  to  that  which 
was  made  in  the  stylobates),  the  rule  for  the  architraves  is  to  be 
as  follows.  If  the  columns  are  at  least  twelve  feet  and  not  more 
than  fifteen  feet  high,  let  the  height  of  the  architrave  be  equal  to 
half  the  thickness  of  a column  at  the  bottom.  If  they  are  from 
fifteen  feet  to  twenty,  let  the  height  of  a column  be  measured  off 
into  thirteen  parts,  and  let  one  of  these  be  the  height  of  the  archi- 
trave. If  they  are  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet,  let  this  height 
be  divided  into  twelve  and  one  half  parts,  and  let  one  of  them 
form  the  height  of  the  architrave.  If  they  are  from  twenty-five 
feet  to  thirty,  let  it  be  divided  into  twelve  parts,  and  let  one  of 

1 Codd.  altitudo. 


94 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  HI 


them  form  the  height.  If  they  are  higher,  the  heights  of  the  archi- 
traves are  to  be  worked  out  proportionately  in  the  same  manner 
from  the  height  of  the  columns. 

9.  For  the  higher  that  the  eye  has  to  climb,  the  less  easily  can 
it  make  its  way  through  the  thicker  and  thicker  mass  of  air.  So 
it  fails  when  the  height  is  great,  its  strength  is  sucked  out  of  it, 
and  it  conveys  to  the  mind  only  a confused  estimate  of  the  dimen- 
sions. Hence  there  must  always  be  a corresponding  increase  in 
the  symmetrical  proportions  of  the  members,  so  that  whether  the 
buildings  are  on  unusually  lofty  sites  or  are  themselves  somewhat 
colossal,  the  size  of  the  parts  may  seem  in  due  proportion.  The 
depth  of  the  architrave  on  its  under  side  just  above  the  capital, 
is  to  be  equivalent  to  the  thickness  of  the  top  of  the  column  just 
under  the  capital,  and  on  its  uppermost  side  equivalent  to  the 
foot  of  the  shaft. 

10.  The  cymatium  of  the  architrave  should  be  one  seventh  of 
the  height  of  the  whole  architrave,  and  its  projection  the  same. 
Omitting  the  cymatium,  the  rest  of  the  architrave  is  to  be  divided 
into  twelve  parts,  and  three  of  these  will  form  the  lowest  fascia, 
four,  the  next,  and  five,  the  highest  fascia.  The  frieze,  above  the 
architrave,  is  one  fourth  less  high  than  the  architrave,  but  if 
there  are  to  be  reliefs  upon  it,  it  is  one  fourth  higher  than  the 
architrave,  so  that  the  sculptures  may  be  more  imposing.  Its  cy- 
matium is  one  seventh  of  the  whole  height  of  the  frieze,  and 
the  projection  of  the  cymatium  is  the  same  as  its  height. 

11.  Over  the  frieze  comes  the  line  of  dentils,  made  of  the  same 
height  as  the  middle  fascia  of  the  architrave  and  with  a projec- 
tion equal  to  their  height.  The  intersection  (or  in  Greek  /ictoV?;) 
is  apportioned  so  that  the  face  of  each  dentil  is  half  as  wide  as  its 
height  and  the  cavity  of  each  intersection  two  thirds  of  this  face 
in  width.  The  cymatium  here  is  one  sixth  of  the  whole  height  of 
this  part.  The  corona  with  its  cymatium,  but  not  including  the 
sima,  has  the  height  of  the  middle  fascia  of  the  architrave,  and 
the  total  projection  of  the  corona  and  dentils  should  be  equal  to 
the  height  from  the  frieze  to  the  cymatium  at  the  top  of  the  corona. 


Chap.  V] 


PROPORTIONS 


95 


L£ 


JD  lH9t3H  - lUVd  I 

crava  vk2\  ca.Ni  cnaiwa  nwato:>  jo  ih3I3m 
' 133  J M33319  S7  01  OZ  — — — 


CAlAAtfllA  01  3N!<ra003V  ^CTaO  OINOf 


C 


pc 


133J  X33^9  -V7 


f 

t 


SATU3JVW  JO  3UIV3U1  3 HI  JO  U3(W0  3IN0I 

l/- 

iiu  wGTijo  jo  3ivoc 


V 5^<3X 

ihi-v  m 


WUltlCHV  JO  1H513H  • 1W<3  I 
sravd  -j/,0!  01M1  caaiAia  nw/tioo  jo  ihogh 
133J  X3GSD  S*  ai  0* 


■3AV?IllH7aV  JO  1H9J3H  - IWd  I 

siuvd  z\  qlni  craaiAia  nwaiod  jo  ihogh 

133J  X3331D  Of  01  SZ 


< ca 


snrjiA  vnauqj  jo  3idW3i  3wi  jo  H3<rao 


: Showing  the  orders  reduced  to  equal  lower  diameters.  B:  Showing  the  orders  to  a uniform  scale. 


VITRUVIUS 


96 


[Book  III 


And  as  a general  rule,  all  projecting  parts  have  greater  beauty 
when  their  projection  is  equal  to  their  height. 

12.  The  height  of  the  tympanum,  which  is  in  the  pediment,  is 
to  be  obtained  thus : let  the  front  of  the  corona,  from  the  two  ends 
of  its  cymatium,  be  measured  off  into  nine  parts,  and  let  one  of 
these  parts  be  set  up  in  the  middle  at  the  peak  of  the  tympanum, 
taking  care  that  it  is  perpendicular  to  the  entablature  and  the 
neckings  of  the  columns.  The  coronae  over  the  tympanum  are  to 
be  made  of  equal  size  with  the  coronae  under  it,  not  including  the 
simae.  Above  the  coronae  are  the  simae  (in  Greek  iiraieTL^), 
which  should  be  made  one  eighth  higher  than  the  height  of  the 
coronae.  The  acroteria  at  the  corners  have  the  height  of  the  cen- 
tre of  the  tympanum,  and  those  in  the  middle  are  one  eighth  part 
higher  than  those  at  the  corners. 

13.  All  the  members  which  are  to  be  above  the  capitals  of  the 
columns,  that  is,  architraves,  friezes,  coronae,  tympana,  gables, 
and  acroteria,  should  be  inclined  to  the  front  a twelfth  part  of 
their  own  height,  for  the  reason  that  when  we  stand  in  front  of 
them,  if  two  lines  are  drawn  from  the  eye,  one  reaching  to  the 
bottom  of  the  building  and  the  other  to  the  top,  that  which 
reaches  to  the  top  will  be  the  longer.  Hence,  as  the  line  of  sight 
to  the  upper  part  is  the  longer,  it  makes  that  part  look  as  if  it  were 
leaning  back.  But  when  the  members  are  inclined  to  the  front,  as 
described  above,  they  will  seem  to  the  beholder  to  be  plumb  and 
perpendicular. 

14.  Each  column  should  have  twenty-four  flutes,  channelled 
out  in  such  a way  that  if  a carpenter’s  square  be  placed  in  the 
hollow  of  a flute  and  turned,  the  arm  will  touch  the  corners  of  the 
fillets  on  the  right  and  left,  and  the  tip  of  the  square  may  keep 
touching  some  point  in  the  concave  surface  as  it  moves  through 
it.  The  breadth  of  the  flutes  is  to  be  equivalent  to  the  enlarge- 
ment in  the  middle  of  a column,  which  will  be  found  in  the  figure. 

15.  In  the  simae  which  are  over  the  coronae  on  the  sides  of  the 
temple,  lion’s  heads  are  to  be  carved  and  arranged  at  intervals 
thus : First  one  head  is  marked  out  directly  over  the  axis  of  each 


Chap.  V] 


PROPORTIONS 


97 


column,  and  then  the  others  are  arranged  at  equal  distances 
apart,  and  so  that  there  shall  be  one  at  the  middle  of  every  roof- 
tiling. Those  that  are  over  the  columns  should  have  holes  bored 
through  them  to  the  gutter  which  receives  the  rain-water  from 
the  tiles,  but  those  between  them  should  be  solid.  Thus  the  mass 
of  water  that  falls  by  way  of  the  tiles  into  the  gutter  will  not  be 
thrown  down  along  the  intercolumniations  nor  drench  people 
who  are  passing  through  them,  while  the  lion’s  heads  that  are 
over  the  columns  will  appear  to  be  vomiting  as  they  discharge 
streams  of  water  from  their  mouths. 

In  this  book  I have  written  as  clearly  as  I could  on  the  arrange- 
ments of  Ionic  temples.  In  the  next  I shall  explain  the  propor- 
tions of  Doric  and  Corinthian  temples. 


BOOK  IV 


BOOK  IV 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  I have  observed,  Emperor,  that  many  in  their  treatises  and 
volumes  of  commentaries  on  architecture  have  not  presented  the 
subject  with  well-ordered  completeness,  but  have  merely  made  a 
beginning  and  left,  as  it  were,  only  desultory  fragments.  I have 
therefore  thought  that  it  would  be  a worthy  and  very  useful  thing 
to  reduce  the  whole  of  this  great  art  to  a complete  and  orderly 
form  of  presentation,  and  then  in  different  books  to  lay  down  and 
explain  the  required  characteristics  of  different  departments. 
Hence,  Caesar,  in  my  first  book  I have  set  forth  to  you  the  func- 
tion of  the  architect  and  the  things  in  which  he  ought  to  be 
trained.  In  the  second  I have  discussed  the  supplies  of  mate- 
rial of  which  buildings  are  constructed.  In  the  third,  which  deals 
with  the  arrangements  of  temples  and  their  variety  of  form,  I 
showed  the  nature  and  number  of  their  classes,  with  the  adjust- 
ments proper  to  each  form  according  to  the  usage  of  the  Ionic 
order,  one  of  the  three  which  exhibit  the  greatest  delicacy  of  pro- 
portion in  their  symmetrical  measurements.  In  the  present  book 
I shall  speak  of  the  established  rules  for  the  Doric  and  Corinthian 
orders,  and  shall  explain  their  differences  and  peculiarities. 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  ORIGINS  OF  THE  THREE  ORDERS,  AND  THE  PROPORTIONS 
OF  THE  CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL 

1.  Corinthian  columns  are,  excepting  in  their  capitals,  of  the 
same  proportions  in  all  respects  as  Ionic;  but  the  height  of  their 
capitals  gives  them  proportionately  a taller  and  more  slender 
effect.  This  is  because  the  height  of  the  Ionic  capital  is  only  one 
third  of  the  thickness  of  the  column,  while  that  of  the  Corinthian 
is  the  entire  thickness  of  the  shaft.  Hence,  as  two  thirds  are 
added  in  Corinthian  capitals,  their  tallness  gives  a more  slender 
appearance  to  the  columns  themselves. 

2.  The  other  members  which  are  placed  above  the  columns, 
are,  for  Corinthian  columns,  composed  either  of  the  Doric  propor- 
tions or  according  to  the  Ionic  usages;  for  the  Corinthian  order 
never  had  any  scheme  peculiar  to  itself  for  its  cornices  or  other 
ornaments,  but  may  have  mutules  in  the  coronae  and  guttae  on 
the  architraves  according  to  the  triglyph  system  of  the  Doric 
style,  or,  according  to  Ionic  practices,  it  may  be  arranged  with  a 
frieze  adorned  with  sculptures  and  accompanied  with  dentils  and 
coronae. 

3.  Thus  a third  architectural  order,  distinguished  by  its  cap- 
ital, was  produced  out  of  the  two  other  orders.  To  the  forms  of 
their  columns  are  due  the  names  of  the  three  orders,  Doric,  Ionic, 
and  Corinthian,  of  which  the  Doric  was  the  first  to  arise,  and  in 
early  times.  For  Dorus,  the  son  of  Hellen  and  the  nymph  Phthia, 
was  king  of  Achaea  and  all  the  Peloponnesus,  and  he  built  a fane, 
which  chanced  to  be  of  this  order,  in  the  precinct  of  Juno  at  Ar- 
golis,  a very  ancient  city,  and  subsequently  others  of  the  same 
order  in  the  other  cities  of  Achaea,  although  the  rules  of  sym- 
metry were  not  yet  in  existence. 

4.  Later,  the  Athenians,  in  obedience  to  oracles  of  the  Delphic 
Apollo,  and  with  the  general  agreement  of  all  Hellas,  despatched 


Chap.  I]  ORIGINS  OF  THE  THREE  ORDERS 


103 


thirteen  colonies  at  one  time  to  Asia  Minor,  appointing  leaders 
for  each  colony  and  giving  the  command-in-chief  to  Ion,  son  of 
Xuthus  and  Creusa  (whom  further  Apollo  at  Delphi  in  the 
oracles  had  acknowledged  as  his  son).  Ion  conducted  those  col- 
onies to  Asia  Minor,  took  possession  of  the  land  of  Caria,  and 
there  founded  the  grand  cities  of  Ephesus,  Miletus,  Myus  (long 
ago  engulfed  by  the  water,  and  its  sacred  rites  and  suffrage  handed 
over  by  the  Ionians  to  the  Milesians),  Priene,  Samos,  Teos,  Colo- 
phon, Chius,  Erythrae,  Pliocaea,  Clazomenae,  Lebedos,  and 
Melite.  This  Melite,  on  account  of  the  arrogance  of  its  citizens, 
was  destroyed  by  the  other  cities  in  a war  declared  by  general 
agreement,  and  in  its  place,  through  the  kindness  of  King  Attains 
and  Arsinoe,  the  city  of  the  Smyrnaeans  was  admitted  among  the 
Ionians. 

5.  Now  these  cities,  after  driving  out  the  Carians  and  Lele- 
gans,  called  that  part  of  the  world  Ionia  from  their  leader  Ion, 
and  there  they  set  off  precincts  for  the  immortal  gods  and  be- 
gan to  build  fanes:  first  of  all,  a temple  to  Panionion  Apollo  such 
as  they  had  seen  in  Achaea,  calling  it  Doric  because  they  had  first 
seen  that  kind  of  temple  built  in  the  states  of  the  Dorians. 

6.  Wishing  to  set  up  columns  in  that  temple,  but  not  having 
rules  for  their  symmetry,  and  being  in  search  of  some  way  by 
which  they  could  render  them  fit  to  bear  a load  and  also  of  a 
satisfactory  beauty  of  appearance,  they  measured  the  imprint  of 
a man’s  foot  and  compared  this  with  his  height.  On  finding  that, 
in  a man,  the  foot  was  one  sixth  of  the  height,  they  applied  the 
same  principle  to  the  column,  and  reared  the  shaft,  including  the 
capital,  to  a height  six  times  its  thickness  at  its  base.  Thus  the 
Doric  column,  as  used  in  buildings,  began  to  exhibit  the  propor- 
tions, strength,  and  beauty  of  the  body  of  a man. 

7.  Just  so  afterwards,  when  they  desired  to  construct  a temple 
to  Diana  in  a new  style  of  beauty,  they  translated  these  foot- 
prints into  terms  characteristic  of  the  slenderness  of  women,  and 
thus  first  made  a column  the  thickness  of  which  was  only  one 
eighth  of  its  height,  so  that  it  might  have  a taller  look.  At  the 


104 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IV 


foot  they  substituted  the  base  in  place  of  a shoe;  in  the  capital 
they  placed  the  volutes,  hanging  down  at  the  right  and  left  like 
curly  ringlets,  and  ornamented  its  front  with  cymatia  and  with 
festoons  of  fruit  arranged  in  place  of  hair,  while  they  brought  the 
flutes  down  the  whole  shaft,  falling  like  the  folds  in  the  robes  worn 
by  matrons.  Thus  in  the  invention  of  the  two  different  kinds  of 
columns,  they  borrowed  manly  beauty,  naked  and  unadorned,  for 
the  one,  and  for  the  other  the  delicacy,  adornment,  and  propor- 
tions characteristic  of  women. 

8.  It  is  true  that  posterity,  having  made  progress  in  refinement 
and  delicacy  of  feeling,  and  finding  pleasure  in  more  slender  pro- 
portions, has  established  seven  diameters  of  the  thickness  as  the 
height  of  the  Doric  column,  and  nine  as  that  of  the  Ionic.  The 
lonians,  however,  originated  the  order  which  is  therefore  named 
Ionic. 

The  third  order,  called  Corinthian,  is  an  imitation  of  the  slen- 
derness of  a maiden;  for  the  outlines  and  limbs  of  maidens,  being 
more  slender  on  account  of  their  tender  years,  admit  of  prettier 
effects  in  the  way  of  adornment. 

9.  It  is  related  that  the  original  discovery  of  this  form  of  cap- 
ital was  as  follows.  A freeborn  maiden  of  Corinth,  just  of  mar- 
riageable age,  was  attacked  by  an  illness  and  passed  away.  After 
her  burial,  her  nurse,  collecting  a few  little  things  which  used  to 
give  the  girl  pleasure  while  she  was  alive,  put  them  in  a basket, 
carried  it  to  the  tomb,  and  laid  it  on  top  thereof,  covering  it 
with  a roof-tile  so  that  the  things  might  last  longer  in  the  open 
air.  This  basket  happened  to  be  placed  just  above  the  root  of  an 
acanthus.  The  acanthus  root,  pressed  down  meanwhile  though 
it  was  by  the  weight,  when  springtime  came  round  put  forth 
leaves  and  stalks  in  the  middle,  and  the  stalks,  growing  up  along 
the  sides  of  the  basket,  and  pressed  out  by  the  corners  of  the  tile 
through  the  compulsion  of  its  weight,  were  forced  to  bend  into 
volutes  at  the  outer  edges. 

10.  Just  then  Callimachus,  whom  the  Athenians  called  tear  a- 

tv  for  the  refinement  and  delicacy  of  his  artistic  work. 


Chap.  I]  ORIGINS  OF  THE  THREE  ORDERS 


105 


3 


1 


AFTER  V1TRVVIVS 


FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF 
VESTA  AT  TIVOLI 


FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF 
MINERVA  AT  ASSISI 


4 

FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF 
CASTOR  (J  POLLVX  , COR! 


5 

FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF 
VESTA  AT  ROME. 


€ 

THE  CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL 
FROM  CORJ 


THE  CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL  OF  VITRUVIUS  COMPARED  WITH  THE  MONUMENTS 


106 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IV 


passed  by  this  tomb  and  observed  the  basket  with  the  tender 
young  leaves  growing  round  it.  Delighted  with  the  novel  style 
and  form,  he  built  some  columns  after  that  pattern  for  the  Cor- 
inthians, determined  their  symmetrical  proportions,  and  estab- 
lished from  that  time  forth  the  rules  to  be  followed  in  finished 
works  of  the  Corinthian  order. 

11.  The  proportions  of  this  capital  should  be  fixed  as  follows. 
Let  the  height  of  the  capital,  including  its  abacus,  be  equivalent 
to  the  thickness  of  the  base  of  a column.  Let  the  breadth  of 
the  abacus  be  proportioned  so  that  diagonals  drawn  from  one 
corner  of  it  to  the  other  shall  be  twice  the  height  of  the  capitals, 
which  will  give  the  proper  breadth  to  each  face  of  the  abacus. 
The  faces  should  curve  inwards,  by  one  ninth  of  the  breadth  of 
the  face,  from  the  outside  edge  of  the  corners  of  the  abacus.  At 
the  bottom  the  capital  should  be  of  the  thickness  of  the  top  of  the 
column  omitting  the  conge  and  astragal.  The  height  of  the  abacus 
is  one  seventh  of  the  height  of  the  capital. 

12.  Omitting  the  height  of  the  abacus,  let  the  rest  be  divided 
into  three  parts,  of  which  one  should  be  given  to  the  lowest  leaf. 
Let  the  second  leaf  occupy  the  middle  part  of  the  height.  Of  the 
same  height  should  be  the  stalks,  out  of  which  grow  leaves  pro- 
jected so  as  to  support  the  volutes  which  proceed  from  the  stalks, 
and  run  out  to  the  utmost  corners  of  the  abacus;  the  smaller 
spirals  between  them  should  be  carved  just  under  the  flower 
which  is  on  the  abacus.  The  flowers  on  the  four  sides  are  to  be 
made  as  large  as  the  height  of  the  abacus.  On  these  principles 
of  proportion,  Corinthian  capitals  will  be  finished  as  they  ought 
to  be. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  capitals  set  upon  these  same  columns 
and  called  by  various  names,  but  they  have  no  peculiarities  of 
proportion  of  which  we  can  speak,  nor  can  we  recognize  from 
them  another  order  of  columns.  Even  their  very  names  are,  as 
we  can  see,  derived  with  some  changes  from  the  Corinthian,  the 
cushion-shaped,  and  the  Doric,  whose  symmetrical  proportions 
have  been  thus  transferred  to  delicate  sculptures  of  novel  form. 


THE  BASILICA  AT  POMPEII 


Chap.  II]  ORNAMENTS  OF  THE  ORDERS 


107 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  ORNAMENTS  OF  THE  ORDERS 

1.  Since  the  origin  and  invention  of  the  orders  of  columns 
have  been  described  above,  I think  it  not  out  of  place  to  speak  in 
the  same  way  about  their  ornaments,  showing  how  these  arose 
and  from  what  original  elements  they  were  devised.  The  upper 
parts  of  all  buildings  contain  timber  work  to  which  various  terms 
are  applied.  And  not  only  in  its  terminology  but  actually  in  its 
uses  it  exhibits  variety.  The  main  beams  are  those  which  are 
laid  upon  columns,  pilasters,  and  antae;  tie-beams  and  rafters  are 
found  in  the  framing.  Under  the  roof,  if  the  span  is  pretty  large, 
are  the  crossbeams  and  struts;  if  it  is  of  moderate  extent,  only  the 
ridgepole,  with  the  principal  rafters  extending  to  the  outer  edge 
of  the  eaves.  Over  the  principal  rafters  are  the  purlines,  and  then 
above  these  and  under  the  roof-tiles  come  the  common  rafters, 
extending  so  far  that  the  walls  are  covered  by  their  projection. 

2.  Thus  each  and  every  detail  has  a place,  origin,  and  order  of 
its  own.  In  accordance  with  these  details,  and  starting  from  car- 
penter’s work,  artists  in  building  temples  of  stone  and  marble 
imitated  those  arrangements  in  their  sculptures,  believing  that 
they  must  follow  those  inventions.  So  it  was  that  some  ancient 
carpenters,  engaged  in  building  somewhere  or  other,  after  lay- 
ing the  tie-beams  so  that  they  projected  from  the  inside  to  the 

outside  of  the  walls,  closed  up  the  space  between  the  beams,  and 
above  them  ornamented  the  coronae  and  gables  with  carpentry 
work  of  beauty  greater  than  usual;  then  they  cut  off  the  pro- 
jecting ends  of  the  beams,  bringing  them  into  line  and  flush 
with  the  face  of  the  walls;  next,  as  this  had  an  ugly  look  to  them, 
they  fastened  boards,  shaped  as  triglyphs  are  now  made,  on  the 
ends  of  the  beams,  where  they  had  been  cut  off  in  front,  and 
painted  them  with  blue  wax  so  that  the  cutting  off  of  the  ends  of 
the  beams,  being  concealed,  would  not  offend  the  eye.  Hence 
it  was  in  imitation  of  the  arrangement  of  the  tie-beams  that  men 


VITRUVIUS 


108 


[Book  IV 


began  to  employ,  in  Doric  buildings,  the  device  of  triglyphs  and 
the  metopes  between  the  beams. 

S.  Later,  others  in  other  buildings  allowed  the  projecting  prin- 
cipal rafters  to  run  out  till  they  were  flush  with  the  triglyphs,  and 
then  formed  their  projections  into  simae.  From  that  practice,  like 
the  triglyphs  from  the  arrangement  of  the  tie-beams,  the  system 
of  mutules  under  the  coronae  was  devised  from  the  projections  of 
the  principal  rafters.  Hence  generally,  in  buildings  of  stone  and 
marble,  the  mutules  are  carved  with  a downward  slant,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  principal  rafters.  For  these  necessarily  have  a slant- 
ing and  projecting  position  to  let  the  water  drip  down.  The 
scheme  of  triglyphs  and  mutules  in  Doric  buildings  was,  there- 
fore, the  imitative  device  that  I have  described. 

4.  It  cannot  be  that  the  triglyphs  represent  windows,  as  some 
have  erroneously  said,  since  the  triglyphs  are  placed  at  the  cor- 
ners and  over  the  middle  of  columns  — places  where,  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  there  can  be  no  windows  at  all.  For  buildings 
are  wholly  disconnected  at  the  corners  if  openings  for  windows 
are  left  at  those  points.  Again,  if  we  are  to  suppose  that  there 
were  open  windows  where  the  triglyphs  now  stand,  it  will  follow, 
on  the  same  principle,  that  the  dentils  of  the  Ionic  order  have 
likewise  taken  the  places  of  windows.  For  the  term  “metope” 
is  used  of  the  intervals  between  dentils  as  well  as  of  those  between 
triglyphs.  The  Greeks  call  the  seats  of  tie-beams  and  rafters  oirai , 
while  our  people  call  these  cavities  columbaria  (dovecotes). 
Hence,  the  space  between  the  tie-beams,  being  the  space  between 
two  “opae,”  was  named  by  them  ^eToV?;. 

5.  The  system  of  triglyphs  and  mutules  was  invented  for  the 
Doric  order,  and  similarly  the  scheme  of  dentils  belongs  to  the 
Ionic,  in  which  there  are  proper  grounds  for  its  use  in  buildings. 
Just  as  mutules  represent  the  projection  of  the  principal  rafters, 
so  dentils  in  the  Ionic  are  an  imitation  of  the  projections  of  the 
common  rafters.  And  so  in  Greek  works  nobody  ever  put  den- 
tils under  mutules,  as  it  is  impossible  that  common  rafters 
should  be  underneath  principal  rafters.  Therefore,  if  that  which 


Chap.  Ill]  PROPORTIONS  OF  DORIC  TEMPLES 


109 


in  the  original  must  be  placed  above  the  principal  rafters,  is  put 
in  the  copy  below  them,  the  result  will  be  a work  constructed  on 
false  principles.  Neither  did  the  ancients  approve  of  or  employ 
mutules  or  dentils  in  pediments,  but  only  plain  coronae,  for  the 
reason  that  neither  principal  nor  common  rafters  tail  into  the 
fronts  of  pediments,  nor  can  they  overhang  them,  but  they  are  laid 
with  a slope  towards  the  eaves.  Hence  the  ancients  held  that 
what  could  not  happen  in  the  original  would  have  no  valid  reason 
for  existence  in  the  copy. 

6.  For  in  all  their  works  they  proceeded  on  definite  principles 
of  fitness  and  in  ways  derived  from  the  truth  of  Nature.  Thus 
they  reached  perfection,  approving  only  those  things  which,  if 
challenged,  can  be  explained  on  grounds  of  the  truth.  Hence, 
from  the  sources  which  have  been  described  they  established  and 
left  us  the  rules  of  symmetry  and  proportion  for  each  order.  Fol- 
lowing in  their  steps,  I have  spoken  above  on  the  Ionic  and  Cor- 
inthian styles,  and  I shall  now  briefly  explain  the  theory  of  the 
Doric  and  its  general  appearance. 


CHAPTER  III 

PROPORTIONS  OF  DORIC  TEMPLES 

1.  Some  of  the  ancient  architects  said  that  the  Doric  order 
ought  not  to  be  used  for  temples,  because  faults  and  incongruities 
were  caused  by  the  laws  of  its  symmetry.  Arcesius  and  Pytheos 
said  so,  as  well  as  Hermogenes.  He,  for  instance,  after  getting 
together  a supply  of  marble  for  the  construction  of  a Doric  tem- 
ple, changed  his  mind  and  built  an  Ionic  temple  to  Father  Bac- 
chus with  the  same  materials.  This  is  not  because  it  is  unlovely 
in  appearance  or  origin  or  dignity  of  form,  but  because  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  triglyphs  and  metopes  (lacunaria)  is  an  em- 
barrassment and  inconvenience  to  the  work. 

2.  For  the  triglyphs  ought  to  be  placed  so  as  to  correspond  to 
the  centres  of  the  columns,  and  the  metopes  between  the  triglyphs 


110 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IV 


ought  to  be  as  broad  as  they  are  high.  But  in  violation  of  this 
rule,  at  the  corner  columns  triglyphs  are  placed  at  the  outside 
edges  and  not  corresponding  to  the  centre  of  the  columns.  Hence 
the  metopes  next  to  the  corner  columns  do  not  come  out  perfectly 
square,  but  are  too  broad  by  half  the  width  of  a triglyph.  Those 
who  would  make  the  metopes  all  alike,  make  the  outermost  inter- 
columniations  narrower  by  half  the  width  of  a triglyph.  But  the 
result  is  faulty,  whether  it  is  attained  by  broader  metopes  or 
narrower  intercolumniations.  For  this  reason,  the  ancients  ap- 
pear to  have  avoided  the  scheme  of  the  Doric  order  in  their 
temples. 

3.  However,  since  our  plan  calls  for  it,  we  set  it  forth  as  we 
have  received  it  from  our  teachers,  so  that  if  anybody  cares  to 
set  to  work  with  attention  to  these  laws,  he  may  find  the  propor- 
tions stated  by  which  he  can  construct  correct  and  faultless  ex- 
amples of  temples  in  the  Doric  fashion. 

Let  the  front  of  a Doric  temple,  at  the  place  where  the  columns 
are  put  up,  be  divided,  if  it  is  to  be  tetrastyle,  into  twenty-seven 
parts;  if  hexastyle,  into  forty-two.  One  of  these  parts  will  be  the 
module  (in  Greek  ififtarris) ; and  this  module  once  fixed,  all  the 
parts  of  the  work  are  adjusted  by  means  of  calculations  based 
upon  it. 

4.  The  thickness  of  the  columns  will  be  two  modules,  and  their 
height,  including  the  capitals,  fourteen.  The  height  of  a capital 
will  be  one  module,  and  its  breadth  two  and  one  sixth  modules. 
Let  the  height  of  the  capital  be  divided  into  three  parts,  of  which 
one  will  form  the  abacus  with  its  cymatium,  the  second  the 
echinus  with  its  annulets,  and  the  third  the  necking.  The  diminu- 
tion of  the  column  should  be  the  same  as  described  for  Ionic  col- 
umns in  the  third  book.  The  height  of  the  architrave,  including 
taenia  and  guttae,  is  one  module,  and  of  the  taenia,  one  seventh 
of  a module.  The  guttae,  extending  as  wide  as  the  triglyphs  and 
beneath  the  taenia,  should  hang  down  for  one  sixth  of  a module, 
including  their  regula.  The  depth  of  the  architrave  on  its  under 
side  should  answer  to  the  necking  at  the  top  of  the  column.  Above 


Chap,  in]  PROPORTIONS  OF  DORIC  TEMPLES 


111 


in 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IV 


the  architrave,  the  triglyphs  and  metopes  are  to  be  placed:  the 
triglyphs  one  and  one  half  modules  high,  and  one  module  wide  in 
front.  They  are  to  be  arranged  so  that  one  is  placed  to  correspond 
to  the  centre  of  each  corner  and  intermediate  column,  and  two 
over  each  intercolumniation  except  the  middle  intercolumnia- 
tions  of  the  front  and  rear  porticoes,  which  have  three  each.  The 
intervals  in  the  middle  being  thus  extended,  a free  passage  will 
be  afforded  to  those  who  would  approach  the  statues  of  the 
gods. 

5.  The  width  of  the  triglyph  should  be  divided  into  six  parts, 
and  five  of  these  marked  off  in  the  middle  by  means  of  the  rule, 
and  two  half  parts  at  the  right  and  left.  Let  one  part,  that  in 
the  centre,  form  a “ femur”  (in  Greek  MP°s) • On  each  side  of 
it  are  the  channels,  to  be  cut  in  to  fit  the  tip  of  a carpenter’s 
square,  and  in  succession  the  other  femora,  one  at  the  right  and 
the  other  at  the  left  of  a channel.  To  the  outsides  are  relegated 
the  semichannels.  The  triglyphs  having  been  thus  arranged,  let 
the  metopes  between  the  triglyphs  be  as  high  as  they  are  wide, 
while  at  the  outer  corners  there  should  be  semimetopes  inserted, 
with  the  width  of  half  a module. 

In  these  ways  all  defects  will  be  corrected,  whether  in  metopes 
or  intercolumniations  or  lacunaria,  as  all  the  arrangements  have 
been  made  with  uniformity. 

6.  The  capitals  of  each  triglyph  are  to  measure  one  sixth  of  a 
module.  Over  the  capitals  of  the  triglyphs  the  corona  is  to  be 
placed,  with  a projection  of  two  thirds  of  a module,  and  having  a 
Doric  cymatium  at  the  bottom  and  another  at  the  top.  So  the 
corona  with  its  cymatia  is  half  a module  in  height.  Set  off  on  the 
under  side  of  the  corona,  vertically  over  the  triglyphs  and  over 
the  middle  of  the  metopes,  are  the  viae  in  straight  lines  and  the 
guttae  arranged  in  rows,  six  guttae  broad  and  three  deep.  The 
spaces  left  (due  to  the  fact  that  the  metopes  are  broader  than  the 
triglyphs)  may  be  left  unornamented  or  may  have  thunderbolts 
carved  on  them.  Just  at  the  edge  of  the  corona  a line  should  be 
cut  in,  called  the  scotia.  All  the  other  parts,  such  as  tympana 


Chap.  Ill]  PROPORTIONS  OF  DORIC  TEMPLES  113 

and  the  simae  of  the  corona,  are  to  be  constructed  as  described 
above  in  the  case  of  the  Ionic  order. 

7.  Such  will  be  the  scheme  established  for  diastyle  buildings. 
But  if  the  building  is  to  be  systyle  and  monotriglyphic,  let  the 
front  of  the  temple,  if  tetrastyle,  be  divided  into  nineteen  and  a 
half  parts;  if  hexastyle,  into  twenty-nine  and  a half  parts.  One 
of  these  parts  will  form  the  module  in  accordance  with  which  the 
adjustments  are  to  be  made  as  above  described. 

8.  Thus,  over  each  portion  of  the  architrave  two  metopes  and 
two  triglyphs1  will  be  placed;  and,  in  addition,  at  the  corners  half  a 
triglyph  and  besides  a space  large  enough  for  a half  triglyph.  At 
the  centre,  vertically  under  the  gable,  there  should  be  room  for 
three  triglyphs  and  three  metopes,  in  order  that  the  centre  inter- 
columniation,  by  its  greater  width,  may  give  ample  room  for 
people  to  enter  the  temple,  and  may  lend  an  imposing  effect  to  the 
view  of  the  statues  of  the  gods. 

9.  The  columns  should  be  fluted  with  twenty  flutes.  If  these 
are  to  be  left  plane,  only  the  twenty  angles  need  be  marked  off. 
But  if  they  are  to  be  channelled  out,  the  contour  of  the  channel- 
ling may  be  determined  thus : draw  a square  with  sides  equal  in 
length  to  the  breadth  of  the  fluting,  and  centre  a pair  of  compasses 
in  the  middle  of  this  square.  Then  describe  a circle  with  a cir- 
cumference touching  the  angles  of  the  square,  and  let  the 
channellings  have  the  contour  of  the  segment  formed  by  the  cir- 
cumference and  the  side  of  the  square.  The  fluting  of  the  Doric 
column  will  thus  be  finished  in  the  style  appropriate  to  it. 

10.  With  regard  to  the  enlargement  to  be  made  in  the  column 
at  its  middle,  let  the  description  given  for  Ionic  columns  in  the 
third  book  be  applied  here  also  in  the  case  of  Doric. 

Since  the  external  appearance  of  the  Corinthian,  Doric,  and 
Ionic  proportions  has  now  been  described,  it  is  necessary  next  to 
explain  the  arrangements  of  the  cella  and  the  pronaos. 

1 That  is  : two  metopes  with  a triglyph  between  them,  and  half  of  the  triglyph  on 
either  side. 


114 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IV 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  CELLA  AND  PRONAOS 

1.  The  length  of  a temple  is  adjusted  so  that  its  width  may  be 
half  its  length,  and  the  actual  cella  one  fourth  greater  in  length 
than  in  width,  including  the  wall  in  which  the  folding  doors  are 
placed.  Let  the  remaining  three  parts,  constituting  the  pronaos, 
extend  to  the  antae  terminating  the  walls,  which  antae  ought  to 
be  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  columns.  If  the  temple  is  to  be 
more  than  twenty  feet  in  width,  let  two  columns  be  placed  be- 
tween the  two  antae,  to  separate  the  pteroma  from  the  pronaos. 
The  three  intercolumniations  between  the  antae  and  the  columns 
should  be  closed  by  low  walls  made  of  marble  or  of  joiner’s  work, 
with  doors  in  them  to  afford  passages  into  the  pronaos. 

2.  If  the  width  is  to  be  more  than  forty  feet,  let  columns  be 
placed  inside  and  opposite  to  the  columns  between  the  antae. 
They  should  have  the  same  height  as  the  columns  in  front  of  them, 
but  their  thickness  should  be  proportionately  reduced:  thus,  if 
the  columns  in  front  are  in  thickness  one  eighth  of  their  height, 
these  should  be  one  tenth;  if  the  former  are  one  ninth  or  one 
tenth,  these  should  be  reduced  in  the  same  proportion.  For  their 
reduction  will  not  be  discernible,  as  the  air  has  not  free  play  about 
them.  Still,  in  case  they  look  too  slender,  when  the  outer  col- 
umns have  twenty  or  twenty-four  flutes,  these  may  have  twenty- 
eight  or  thirty-two.  Thus  the  additional  number  of  flutes  will 
make  up  proportionately  for  the  loss  in  the  body  of  the  shaft, 
preventing  it  from  being  seen,  and  so  in  a different  way  the  col- 
umns will  be  made  to  look  equally  thick. 

3.  The  reason  for  this  result  is  that  the  eye,  touching  thus  upon 
a greater  number  of  points,  set  closer  together,  has  a larger  com- 
pass to  cover  with  its  range  of  vision.  For  if  two  columns,  equally 
thick  but  one  unfluted  and  the  other  fluted,  are  measured  by 
drawing  lines  round  them,  one  line  touching  the  body  of  the  col- 
umns in  the  hollows  of  the  channels  and  on  the  edges  of  the  flutes, 


Chap.  IV] 


THE  CELLA  AND  PRONAOS 


115 


rnn 


ACCORDING  TO 
VSTRVVIVS 


CORIN+HIAN  TEMPLE 
AT  LABRANDA. 


ACCORDING  TO 
V1TRWIVS 


TEMPLE  OF  MERCVLES  TEMPLE  OF  THEMIS 
At  CORI  AT  RHAMNV5 


YITRUYIUS’  TEMPLE  PLAN  COMPARED  WITH  ACTUAL  EXAMPLES 


116 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IV 


these  surrounding  lines,  even  though  the  columns  are  equally 
thick,  will  not  be  equal  to  each  other,  because  it  takes  a line  of 
greater  length  to  compass  the  channels  and  the  flutes.  This  being 
granted,  it  is  not  improper,  in  narrow  quarters  or  where  the  space 
is  enclosed,  to  use  in  a building  columns  of  somewhat  slender 
proportions,  since  we  can  help  out  by  a duly  proportionate  num- 
ber of  flutings. 

4.  The  walls  of  the  cella  itself  should  be  thick  in  proportion  to 
its  size,  provided  that  their  antae  are  kept  of  the  same  thickness 
as  the  columns.  If  the  walls  are  to  be  of  masonry,  let  the  rubble 
used  be  as  small  as  possible;  but  if  they  are  to  be  of  dimension 
stone  or  marble,  the  material  ought  to  be  of  a very  moderate  and 
uniform  size;  for  the  laying  of  the  stones  so  as  to  break  joints  will 
make  the  whole  work  stronger,  and  their  bevelled  edges,  stand- 
ing up  about  the  builds  and  beds,  will  give  it  an  agreeable  look, 
somewhat  like  that  of  a picture. 


CHAPTER  V 

HOW  THE  TEMPLE  SHOULD  FACE 

1.  The  quarter  toward  which  temples  of  the  immortal  gods 
ought  to  face  is  to  be  determined  on  the  principle  that,  if  there  is 
no  reason  to  hinder  and  the  choice  is  free,  the  temple  and  the 
statue  placed  in  the  cella  should  face  the  western  quarter  of  the 
sky.  This  will  enable  those  who  approach  the  altar  with  offerings 
or  sacrifices  to  face  the  direction  of  the  sunrise  in  facing  the  sta- 
tue in  the  temple,  and  thus  those  who  are  undertaking  vows  look 
toward  the  quarter  from  which  the  sun  comes  forth,  and  likewise 
the  statues  themselves  appear  to  be  coming  forth  out  of  the  east 
to  look  upon  them  as  they  pray  and  sacrifice. 

2.  But  if  the  nature  of  the  site  is  such  as  to  forbid  this,  then  the 
principle  of  determining  the  quarter  should  be  changed,  so  that 
the  widest  possible  view  of  the  city  may  be  had  from  the  sanctuar- 
ies of  the  gods.  Furthermore,  temples  that  are  to  be  built  beside 


117 


Chap.  VI]  THE  DOORWAYS  OF  TEMPLES 

rivers,  as  in  Egypt  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  ought,  as  it  seems,  to 
face  the  river  banks.  Similarly,  houses  of  the  gods  on  the  sides  of 
public  roads  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  passers-by  can  have 
a view  of  them  and  pay  their  devotions  face  to  face. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  DOORWAYS  OF  TEMPLES 

1.  For  the  doorways  of  temples  and  their  casings  the  rules  are 
as  follows,  first  determining  of  what  style  they  are  to  be.  The 
styles  of  portals  are  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Attic. 

In  the  Doric,  the  symmetrical  proportions  are  distinguished  by 
the  following  rules.  Let  the  top  of  the  corona,  which  is  laid  above 
the  casing,  be  on  a level  with  the  tops  of  the  capitals  of  the  col- 
umns in  the  pronaos.  The  aperture  of  the  doorway  should  be  de- 
termined by  dividing  the  height  of  the  temple,  from  floor  to  cof- 
fered ceiling,  into  three  and  one  half  parts  and  letting  two  and 
one  half  1 thereof  constitute  the  height  of  the  aperture  of  the  fold- 
ing doors.  Let  this  in  turn  be  divided  into  twelve  parts,  and  let 
five  and  a half  of  these  form  the  width  of  the  bottom  of  the  aper- 
ture. At  the  top,  this  width  should  be  diminished,  if  the  aperture 
is  sixteen  feet  in  height,  by  one  third  the  width  of  the  door-jamb; 
if  the  aperture  is  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five  feet,  let  the  upper 
part  of  it  be  diminished  by  one  quarter  of  the  jamb;  if  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  feet,  let  the  top  be  diminished  by  one  eighth 
of  the  jamb.  Other  and  higher  apertures  should,  as  it  seems,  have 
their  sides  perpendicular. 

2.  Further,  the  jambs  themselves  should  be  diminished  at  the 
top  by  one  fourteenth  of  their  width.  The  height  of  the  lintel 
shQuld  be  equivalent  to  the  width  of  the  jambs  at  the  top.  Its 
cymatium  ought  to  be  one  sixth  of  the  jamb,  with  a projection 
equivalent  to  its  height.  The  style  of  carving  of  the  cymatium 
with  its  astragal  should  be  the  Lesbian.  Above  the  cymatium  of 

1 Codd.  duae. 


118 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IV 


the  lintel,  place  the  frieze  of  the  doorway,  of  the  same  height  as 
the  lintel,  and  having  a Doric  cymatium  and  Lesbian  astragal 
carved  upon  it.  Let  the  corona  and  its  cymatium  at  the  top  of  all 
be  carved  without  ornamentation,  and  have  a projection  equal 
to  its  height.  To  the  right  and  left  of  the  lintel,  which  rests  upon 
the  jambs,  there  are  to  be  projections  fashioned  like  projecting 
bases  and  jointed  to  a nicety  with  the  cymatium  itself. 

3.  If  the  doorways  are  to  be  of  the  Ionic  style,  the  height  of 
the  aperture  should  be  reached  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
Doric.  Let  its  width  be  determined  by  dividing  the  height  into 
two  and  one  half  parts  and  letting  one  of  them  form  the  width  at 
the  bottom.  The  diminutions  should  be  the  same  as  for  Doric. 
The  width  of  the  faces  of  the  jambs  should  be  one  fourteenth  of 
the  height  of  the  aperture,  and  the  cymatium  one  sixth  of  the 
width.  Let  the  rest,  excluding  the  cymatium,  be  divided  into 
twelve  parts.  Let  three  of  these  compose  the  first  fascia  with  its 
astragal,  four  the  second,  and  five  the  third,  the  fasciae  with 
their  astragals  running  side  by  side  all  round. 

4.  The  cornices  of  Ionic  doorways  should  be  constructed  in  the 
same  manner  as  those  of  Doric,  in  due  proportions.  The  consoles, 
otherwise  called  brackets,  carved  at  the  right  and  left,  should 
hang  down  to  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  lintel,  exclusive  of 
the  leaf.  Their  width  on  the  face  should  be  two  thirds  of  the 
width  of  the  jamb,  but  at  the  bottom  one  fourth  slenderer  than 
above. 

Doors  should  be  constructed  with  the  hinge-stiles  one  twelfth 
of  the  width  of  the  whole  aperture.  The  panels  between  two 
stiles  should  each  occupy  three  of  the  twelve  parts. 

5.  The  rails  will  be  apportioned  thus:  divide  the  height  into 
five  parts,  of  which  assign  two  to  the  upper  portion  and  three  to 
the  lower;  above  the  centre  place  the  middle  rails;  insert  the 
others  at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom.  Let  the  height  of  a rail  be 
one  third  of  the  breadth  of  a panel,  and  its  cymatium  one  sixth 
of  the  rail.  The  width  of  the  meeting-stiles  should  be  one  half  the 
rail,  and  the  cover- joint  two  thirds  of  the  rail.  The  stiles  toward 


18  GRILK  TUT 


Chap.  VI]  THE  DOORWAYS  OF  TEMPLES 


119 


VITRUVIUS’  RULE  FOR  DOORWAYS  COMPARED  WITH  TWO  EXAMPLES 


WIDTH  OF  API 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IV 


120 

the  side  of  the  jambs  should  be  one  half  the  rail.  If  the  doors  have 
folds  in  them,  the  height  will  remain  as  before,  but  the  width 
should  be  double  that  of  a single  door;  if  the  door  is  to  have  four 
folds,  its  height  should  be  increased. 

6.  Attic  doorways  are  built  with  the  same  proportions  as  Doric. 
Resides,  there  are  fasciae  running  all  round  under  the  cymatia  on 
the  jambs,  and  apportioned  so  as  to  be  equal  to  three  sevenths 
of  a jamb,  excluding  the  cymatium.  The  doors  are  without  lattice- 
work,  are  not  double  but  have  folds  in  them,  and  open  outward. 

The  laws  which  should  govern  the  design  of  temples  built  in 
the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  styles,  have  now,  so  far  as  I 
could  arrive  at  them,  been  set  forth  according  to  what  may  be 
called  the  accepted  methods.  I shall  next  speak  of  the  arrange- 
ments in  the  Tuscan  style,  showing  how  they  should  be  treated. 


CHAPTER  VII 

TUSCAN  TEMPLES 

1.  The  place  where  the  temple  is  to  be  built  having  been  di- 
vided on  its  length  into  six  parts,  deduct  one  and  let  the  rest  be 
given  to  its  width.  Then  let  the  length  be  divided  into  two  equal 
parts,  of  which  let  the  inner  be  reserved  as  space  for  the  cellae,  and 
the  part  next  the  front  left  for  the  arrangement  of  the  columns. 

2.  Next  let  the  width  be  divided  into  ten  parts.  Of  these,  let 
three  on  the  right  and  three  on  the  left  be  given  to  the  smaller 
cellae,  or  to  the  alae  if  there  are  to  be  alae,  and  the  other  four  de- 
voted to  the  middle  of  the  temple.  Let  the  space  in  front  of  the 
cellae,  in  the  pronaos,  be  marked  out  for  columns  thus : the  corner 
columns  should  be  placed  opposite  the  antae  on  the  line  of  the 
outside  walls;  the  two  middle  columns,  set  out  on  the  line  of  the 
walls  which  are  between  the  antae  and  the  middle  of  the  temple; 
and  through  the  middle,  between  the  antae  and  the  front  col- 
umns, a second  row,  arranged  on  the  same  lines.  Let  the  thick- 
ness of  the  columns  at  the  bottom  be  one  seventh  of  their  height, 


Chap.  VII]  TUSCAN  TEMPLES  121 


122 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IV 


their  height  one  third  of  the  width  of  the  temple,  and  the  dimi- 
nution of  a column  at  the  top,  one  fourth  of  its  thickness  at  the 
bottom. 

3.  The  height  of  their  bases  should  be  one  half  of  that  thick- 
ness. The  plinth  of  their  bases  should  be  circular,  and  in  height 
one  half  the  height  of  the  bases,  the  torus  above  it  and  conge 
being  of  the  same  height  as  the  plinth.  The  height  of  the  capital 
is  one  half  the  thickness  of  a column.  The  abacus  has  a width 
equivalent  to  the  thickness  of  the  bottom  of  a column.  Let  the 
height  of  the  capital  be  divided  into  three  parts,  and  give  one  to 
the  plinth  (that  is,  the  abacus),  the  second  to  the  echinus,  and  the 
third  to  the  necking  with  its  conge. 

4.  Upon  the  columns  lay  the  main  beams,  fastened  together, 
to  a height  commensurate  with  the  requirements  of  the  size  of 
the  building.  These  beams  fastened  together  should  be  laid  so 
as  to  be  equivalent  in  thickness  to  the  necking  at  the  top  of  a 
column,  and  should  be  fastened  together  by  means  of  dowels  and 
dove-tailed  tenons  in  such  a way  that  there  shall  be  a space 
two  fingers  broad  between  them  at  the  fastening.  For  if  they 
touch  one  another,  and  so  do  not  leave  airholes  and  admit 
draughts  of  air  to  blow  between  them,  they  get  heated  and  soon 
begin  to  rot. 

5.  Above  the  beams  and  walls  let  the  mutules  project  to  a dis- 
tance equal  to  one  quarter  of  the  height  of  a column;  along  the 
front  of  them  nail  casings;  above,  build  the  tympanum  of  the 
pediment  either  in  masonry  or  in  wood.  The  pediment  with  its 
ridgepole,  principal  rafters,  and  purlines  are  to  be  built  in  such  a 
way  that  the  eaves  shall  be  equivalent  to  one  third  of  the  com- 
pleted roof. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

CIRCULAR  TEMPLES  AND  OTHER  VARIETIES 

1.  There  are  also  circular  temples,  some  of  which  are  con- 
structed in  monopteral  form,  surrounded  by  columns  but  without 


Photo.  Anderson 

THE  CIRCULAR  TEMPLE  AT  TIVOLI 


THE  MAISON  CARREE  AT  NIMES,  A PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL  TEMPLE 


Chap.  VIII] 


CIRCULAR  TEMPLES 


123 


a cella,  while  others  are  termed  peripteral.  Those  that  are  with- 
out a cella  have  a raised  platform  and  a flight  of  steps  leading  to 
it,  one  third  of  the  diameter  of  the  temple.  The  columns  upon  the 
stylobates  are  constructed  of  a height  equivalent  to  the  diameter 
taken  between  the  outer  edges  of  the  stylobate  walls,  and  of  a 


3 

( 


thickness  equivalent  to  one  tenth  of  their  height  including  the 
capitals  and  bases.  The  architrave  has  the  height  of  one  half  of 
the  thickness  of  a column.  The  frieze  and  the  other  parts  placed 
above  it  are  such  as  I have  described  in  the  third 1 book,  on  the 
subject  of  symmetrical  proportions. 

2.  But  if  such  a temple  is  to  be  constructed  in  peripteral  form, 
let  two  steps  and  then  the  stylobate  be  constructed  below.  Next, 
let  the  cella  wall  be  set  up,  recessed  within  the  stylobate  about 
one  fifth  of  the  breadth  thereof,  and  let  a place  for  folding  doors 
be  left  in  the  middle  to  afford  entrance.  This  cella,  excluding  its 
walls  and  the  passage  round  the  outside,  should  have  a diameter 
equivalent  to  the  height  of  a column  above  the  stylobate.  Let 

1 Codd.  quarto. 


VITRUVIUS 


124 


[Book  IV 


the  columns  round  the  cella  be  arranged  in  the  symmetrical  pro- 
portions just  given. 

3.  The  proportions  of  the  roof  in  the  centre  should  be  such  that 
the  height  of  the  rotunda,  excluding  the  finial,  is  equivalent  to 
one  half  the  diameter  of  the  whole  work.  The  finial,  excluding 


THE  CIRCULAR  TEMPLE  ACCORDING  TO  VITRUVIUS 

its  pyramidal  base,  should  have  the  dimensions  of  the  capital  of 
a column.  All  the  rest  must  be  built  in  the  symmetrical  propor- 
tions described  above. 

4.  There  are  also  other  kinds  of  temples,  constructed  in  the 
same  symmetrical  proportions  and  yet  with  a different  kind  of 
plan:  for  example,  the  temple  of  Castor  in  the  district  of  the 
Circus  Flaminius,  that  of  Vejovis  between  the  two  groves,  and 
still  more  ingeniously  the  temple  of  Diana  in  her  sacred  grove, 
with  columns  added  on  the  right  and  left  at  the  flanks  of  the 
pronaos.  Temples  of  this  kind,  like  that  of  Castor  in  the  Circus, 
were  first  built  in  Athens  on  the  Acropolis,  and  in  Attica  at 
Sunium  to  Pallas  Minerva.  The  proportions  of  them  are  not  dif- 
ferent, but  the  same  as  usual.  For  the  length  of  their  cellae  is 
twice  the  width,  as  in  other  temples;  but  all  that  we  regularly 
find  in  the  fronts  of  others  is  in  these  transferred  to  the  sides. 


Chap.  IX] 


ALTARS 


125 

5.  Some  take  the  arrangement  of  columns  belonging  to  the 
Tuscan  order  and  apply  it  to  buildings  in  the  Corinthian  and 
Ionic  styles,  and  where  there  are  projecting  antae  in  the  pronaos, 
set  up  two  columns  in  a line  with  each  of  the  cella  walls,  thus  mak- 
ing a combination  of  the  principles  of  Tuscan  and  Greek  build- 
ings. 

6.  Others  actually  remove  the  temple  walls,  transferring  them 
to  the  intercolumniations,  and  thus,  by  dispensing  with  the  space 
needed  for  a pteroma,  greatly  increase  the  extent  of  the  cella.  So, 
while  leaving  all  the  rest  in  the  same  symmetrical  proportions, 
they  appear  to  have  produced  a new  kind  of  plan  with  the  new 
name  “pseudoperipteral.”  These  kinds,  however,  vary  according 
to  the  requirements  of  the  sacrifices.  For  we  must  not  build  tem- 
ples according  to  the  same  rules  to  all  gods  alike,  since  the  per- 
formance of  the  sacred  rites  varies  with  the  various  gods. 

7.  I have  now  set  forth,  as  they  have  come  down  to  me,  all  the 
principles  governing  the  building  of  temples,  have  marked  out 
under  separate  heads  their  arrangements  and  proportions,  and 
have  set  forth,  so  far  as  I could  express  them  in  writing,  the  dif- 
ferences in  their  plans  and  the  distinctions  which  make  them  un- 
like one  another.  Next,  with  regard  to  the  altars  of  the  immortal 
gods,  I shall  state  how  they  may  be  constructed  so  as  to  conform 
to  the  rules  governing  sacrifices. 


CHAPTER  IX 

ALTARS 

Altars  should  face  the  east,  and  should  always  be  placed  on  a 
lower  level  than  are  the  statues  in  the  temples,  so  that  those  who 
are  praying  and  sacrificing  may  look  upwards  towards  the  divin- 
ity. They  are  of  different  heights,  being  each  regulated  so  as  to 
be  appropriate  to  its  own  god.  Their  heights  are  to  be  adjusted 
thus : for  Jupiter  and  all  the  celestials,  let  them  be  constructed  as 
high  as  possible;  for  Vesta  and  Mother  Earth,  let  them  be  built 


VITRUVIUS 


126 


[Book  IV 


low.  In  accordance  with  these  rules  will  altars  be  adjusted  when 
one  is  preparing  his  plans. 

Having  described  the  arrangements  of  temples  in  this  book,  in 
the  following  we  shall  give  an  exposition  of  the  construction  of 
public  buildings. 


BOOK  V 


BOOK  V 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  Those  who  have  filled  books  of  unusually  large  size,  Em- 
peror, in  setting  forth  their  intellectual  ideas  and  doctrines,  have 
thus  made  a very  great  and  remarkable  addition  to  the  authority 
of  their  writings.  I could  wish  that  circumstances  made  this  as 
permissible  in  the  case  of  our  subject,  so  that  the  authority  of 
the  present  treatise  might  be  increased  by  amplifications;  but  this 
is  not  so  easy  as  it  may  be  thought.  Writing  on  architecture  is 
not  like  history  or  poetry.  History  is  captivating  to  the  reader 
from  its  very  nature;  for  it  holds  out  the  hope  of  various  novel- 
ties. Poetry,  with  its  measures  and  metrical  feet,  its  refinement 
in  the  arrangement  of  words,  and  the  delivery  in  verse  of  the 
sentiments  expressed  by  the  several  characters  to  one  another, 
delights  the  feelings  of  the  reader,  and  leads  him  smoothly  on 
to  the  very  end  of  the  work. 

2.  But  this  cannot  be  the  case  with  architectural  treatises,  be- 
cause those  terms  which  originate  in  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  art, 
give  rise  to  obscurity  of  ideas  from  the  unusual  nature  of  the  lan- 
guage. Hence,  while  the  things  themselves  are  not  well  known, 
and  their  names  not  in  common  use,  if  besides  this  the  principles 
are  described  in  a very  diffuse  fashion  without  any  attempt  at 
conciseness  and  explanation  in  a few  pellucid  sentences,  such  full- 
ness and  amplitude  of  treatment  will  be  only  a hindrance,  and  will 
give  the  reader  nothing  but  indefinite  notions.  Therefore,  when 
I mention  obscure  terms,  and  the  symmetrical  proportions  of 
members  of  buildings,  I shall  give  brief  explanations,  so  that  they 
may  be  committed  to  memory;  for  thus  expressed,  the  mind  will 
be  enabled  to  understand  them  the  more  easily. 

3.  Furthermore,  since  I have  observed  that  our  citizens  are 
distracted  with  public  affairs  and  private  business,  I have  thought 


130 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


it  best  to  write  briefly,  so  that  my  readers,  whose  intervals  of 
leisure  are  small,  may  be  able  to  comprehend  in  a short  time. 

Then  again,  Pythagoras  and  those  who  came  after  him  in  his 
school  thought  it  proper  to  employ  the  principles  of  the  cube  in 
composing  books  on  their  doctrines,  and,  having  determined 
that  the  cube  consisted  of  216 1 lines,  held  that  there  should  be  no 
more  than  three  cubes  in  any  one  treatise. 

4.  A cube  is  a body  with  sides  all  of  equal  breadth  and  their 
surfaces  perfectly  square.  When  thrown  down,  it  stands  firm  and 
steady  so  long  as  it  is  untouched,  no  matter  on  which  of  its  sides 
it  has  fallen,  like  the  dice  which  players  throw  on  the  board.  The 
Pythagoreans  appear  to  have  drawn  their  analogy  from  the  cube, 
because  the  number  of  lines  mentioned  will  be  fixed  firmly  and 
steadily  in  the  memory  when  they  have  once  settled  down,  like 
a cube,  upon  a man’s  understanding.  The  Greek  comic  poets, 
also,  divided  their  plays  into  parts  by  introducing  a choral  song, 
and  by  this  partition  on  the  principle  of  the  cubes,  they  relieve  the 
actor’s  speeches  by  such  intermissions. 

5.  Since  these  rules,  founded  on  the  analogy  of  nature,  were 
followed  by  our  predecessors,  and  since  I observe  that  I have  to 
write  on  unusual  subjects  which  many  persons  will  find  obscure, 
I have  thought  it  best  to  write  in  short  books,  so  that  they  may 
the  more  readily  strike  the  understanding  of  the  reader : for  they 
will  thus  be  easy  to  comprehend.  I have  also  arranged  them  so 
that  those  in  search  of  knowledge  on  a subject  may  not  have  to 
gather  it  from  different  places,  but  may  find  it  in  one  complete 
treatment,  with  the  various  classes  set  forth  each  in  a book  by 
itself.  Hence,  Caesar,  in  the  third  and  fourth  books  I gave  the 
rules  for  temples;  in  this  book  I shall  treat  of  the  laying  out  of 
public  places.  I shall  speak  first  of  the  proper  arrangement  of  the 
forum,  for  in  it  the  course  of  both  public  and  private  affairs  is 
directed  by  the  magistrates. 

1 Codd.  CC . <&  L. 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  FORUM  AND  BASILICA 

1.  The  Greeks  lay  out  their  forums  in  the  form  of  a square 
surrounded  by  very  spacious  double  colonnades,  adorn  them 
with  columns  set  rather  closely  together,  and  with  entablatures 
of  stone  or  marble,  and  construct  walks  above  in  the  upper  story. 
But  in  the  cities  of  Italy  the  same  method  cannot  be  followed,  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  a custom  handed  down  from  our  ancestors 
that  gladiatorial  shows  should  be  given  in  the  forum. 

2.  Therefore  let  the  intercolumniations  round  the  show  place 
be  pretty  wide;  round  about  in  the  colonnades  put  the  bankers’ 
offices;  and  have  balconies  on  the  upper  floor  properly  arranged 
so  as  to  be  convenient,  and  to  bring  in  some  public  revenue. 


A,  Forum.  B,  Basilica.  C,  Curia.  C’,  Official  Building.  D,  Small  Temple. 
E,  Latrina.  F,  Atrium. 


132 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


The  size  of  a forum  should  be  proportionate  to  the  number  of 
inhabitants,  so  that  it  may  not  be  too  small  a space  to  be  useful, 
nor  look  like  a desert  waste  for  lack  of  population.  To  determine 
its  breadth,  divide  its  length  into  three  parts  and  assign  two  of 
them  to  the  breadth.  Its  shape  will  then  be  oblong,  and  its  ground 
plan  conveniently  suited  to  the  conditions  of  shows. 

3.  The  columns  of  the  upper  tier  should  be  one  fourth  smaller 
than  those  of  the  lower,  because,  for  the  purpose  of  bearing  the 
load,  what  is  below  ought  to  be  stronger  than  what  is  above,  and 
also,  because  we  ought  to  imitate  nature  as  seen  in  the  case  of 
things  growing;  for  example,  in  round  smooth-stemmed  trees,  like 
the  fir,  cypress,  and  pine,  every  one  of  which  is  rather  thick  just 
above  the  roots  and  then,  as  it  goes  on  increasing  in  height,  ta- 
pers off  naturally  and  symmetrically  in  growing  up  to  the  top. 
Hence,  if  nature  requires  this  in  things  growing,  it  is  the  right  ar- 
rangement that  what  is  above  should  be  less  in  height  and  thick- 
ness than  what  is  below. 

4.  Basilicas  should  be  constructed  on  a site  adjoining  the 
forum  and  in  the  warmest  possible  quarter,  so  that  in  winter 
business  men  may  gather  in  them  without  being  troubled  by 
the  weather.  In  breadth  they  should  be  not  less  than  one  third 
nor  more  than  one  half  of  their  length,  unless  the  site  is  naturally 
such  as  to  prevent  this  and  to  oblige  an  alteration  in  these  pro- 
portions. If  the  length  of  the  site  is  greater  than  necessary,  Chal- 
cidian  porches  may  be  constructed  at  the  ends,  as  in  the  Julia 
Aquiliana. 

5.  It  is  thought  that  the  columns  of  basilicas  ought  to  be  as 
high  as  the  side-aisles  are  broad;  an  aisle  should  be  limited  to  one 
third  of  the  breadth  which  the  open  space  in  the  middle  is  to  have. 
Let  the  columns  of  the  upper  tier  be  smaller  than  those  of  the 
lower,  as  written  above.  The  screen,  to  be  placed  between  the 
upper  and  the  lower  tiers  of  columns,  ought  to  be,  it  is  thought, 
one  fourth  lower  than  the  columns  of  the  upper  tier,  so  that  peo- 
ple walking  in  the  upper  story  of  the  basilica  may  not  be  seen  by 
the  business  men.  The  architraves,  friezes,  and  cornices  should 


tAvJ0™™-  Basilica.  C,  Temple  of  Apollo.  D,  D',  Market  Buildings.  E,  Latrina. 
1 , City  Treasury.  G,  Memorial  Arcli.  H,  Temple  of  Jupiter.  I,  Arch  of  Tiberius.  K,  Macel- 
"*ri?  (provision  market).  L,  Sanctuary  of  the  City  Lares.  M,  Temple  of  Vespasian. 
S’  £ldinf  °*  Eumachia.  O,  Comitium.  P,  Office  of  the  Luumvirs.  Q,  The  City  Council. 
K,  Office  of  the  Aediles.  J 


VITRUVIUS 


134 


[Book  V 


be  adjusted  to  the  proportions  of  the  columns,  as  we  have  stated 
in  the  third  book. 

6.  But  basilicas  of  the  greatest  dignity  and  beauty  may  also  be 
constructed  in  the  style  of  that  one  which  I erected,  and  the  build- 
ing of  which  I superintended  at 
Fano.  Its  proportions  and  symme- 
trical relations  were  established  as 
follows.  In  the  middle,  the  main 
roof  between  the  columns  is  120  feet 
long  and  sixty  feet  wide.  Its  aisle 
round  the  space  beneath  the  main 
roof  and  between  the  walls  and  the 
columns  is  twenty  feet  broad.  The 
columns,  of  unbroken  height,  mea- 
suring with  their  capitals  fifty  feet, 
and  being  each  five  feet  thick,  have 
behind  them  pilasters,  twenty  feet 
high,  two  and  one  half  feet  broad, 
and  one  and  one  half  feet  thick, 
which  support  the  beams  on  which 
is  carried  the  upper  flooring  of  the 
aisles.  Above  them  are  other  pilas- 
ters, eighteen  feet  high,  two  feet 
broad,  and  a foot  thick,  which  carry 
the  beams  supporting  the  principal 
raftering  and  the  roof  of  the  aisles, 
which  is  brought  down  lower  than 
the  main  roof. 

7.  The  spaces  remaining  between 
the  beams  supported  by  the  pilasters  and  the  columns,  are  left  for 
windows  between  the  intercolumniations.  The  columns  are:  on 
the  breadth  of  the  main  roof  at  each  end,  four,  including  the 
corner  columns  at  right  and  left;  on  the  long  side  which  is  next 
to  the  forum,  eight,  including  the  same  corner  columns;  on  the 
other  side,  six,  including  the  corner  columns.  This  is  because  the 


PLAN  OF  THE  BASILICA  AT 
POMPEII 


Chap.  I] 


THE  FORUM  AND  BASILICA 


135 


O to  ZO  40  60  60  too 

SCALE  OF  GREEK  FELT 

Vitrvvivs-  Basilica  at  Fano 


136 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


two  middle  columns  on  that  side  are  omitted,  in  order  not  to 
obstruct  the  view  of  the  pronaos  of  the  temple  of  Augustus  (which 
is  built  at  the  middle  of  the  side  wall  of  the  basilica,  facing  the 
middle  of  the  forum  and  the  temple  of  Jupiter)  and  also  the 
tribunal  which  is  in  the  former  temple,  shaped  as  a hemicycle 
whose  curvature  is  less  than  a semicircle. 

8.  The  open  side  of  this  hemicycle  is  forty-six  feet  along  the 
front,  and  its  curvature  inwards  is  fifteen  feet,  so  that  those  who 
are  standing  before  the  magistrates  may  not  be  in  the  way  of  the 
business  men  in  the  basilica.  Round  about,  above  the  columns, 
are  placed  the  architraves,  consisting  of  three  two-foot  timbers 
fastened  together.  These  return  from  the  columns  which  stand 
third  on  the  inner  side  to  the  antae  which  project  from  the 
pronaos,  and  which  touch  the  edges  of  the  hemicycle  at  right 
and  left. 

9.  Above  the  architraves  and  regularly  dispersed  on  supports 
directly  over  the  capitals,  piers  are  placed,  three  feet  high  and 
four  feet  broad  each  way.  Above  them  is  placed  the  projecting 
cornice  round  about,  made  of  two  two-foot  timbers.  The  tie- 
beams  and  struts,  being  placed  above  them,  and  directly  over  the 
shafts  of  the  columns  and  the  antae  and  walls  of  the  pronaos, 
hold  up  one  gable  roof  along  the  entire  basilica,  and  another  from 
the  middle  of  it,  over  the  pronaos  of  the  temple. 

10.  Thus  the  gable  tops  run  in  two  directions,  like  the  letter 
T,  and  give  a beautiful  effect  to  the  outside  and  inside  of  the  main 
roof.  Further,  by  the  omission  of  an  ornamental  entablature 
and  of  a line  of  screens  and  a second  tier  of  columns,  troublesome 
labour  is  saved  and  the  total  cost  greatly  diminished.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  carrying  of  the  columns  themselves  in  unbroken  height 
directly  up  to  the  beams  that  support  the  main  roof,  seems  to  add 
an  air  of  sumptuousness  and  dignity  to  the  work. 


Chap.  Ill] 


THE  THEATRE 


137 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  TREASURY,  PRISON,  AND  SENATE  HOUSE 

1.  The  treasury,  prison,  and  senate  house  ought  to  adjoin  the 
forum,  but  in  such  a way  that  their  dimensions  may  be  propor- 
tionate to  those  of  the  forum.  Particularly,  the  senate  house 
should  be  constructed  with  special  regard  to  the  importance  of 
the  town  or  city.  If  the  building  is  square,  let  its  height  be  fixed 
at  one  and  one  half  times  its  breadth ; but  if  it  is  to  be  oblong,  add 
together  its  length  and  breadth  and,  having  got  the  total,  let 
half  of  it  be  devoted  to  the  height  up  to  the  coffered  ceiling. 

2.  Further,  the  inside  walls  should  be  girdled,  at  a point  half- 
way up  their  height,  with  coronae  made  of  woodwork  or  of 
stucco.  Without  these,  the  voice  of  men  engaged  in  discussion 
there  will  be  carried  up  to  the  height  above,  and  so  be  unintelli- 
gible to  their  listeners.  But  when  the  walls  are  girdled  with  cor- 
onae, the  voice  from  below,  being  detained  before  rising  and 
becoming  lost  in  the  air,  will  be  intelligible  to  the  ear. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  theatre:  its  site,  foundations,  and  acoustics 

1.  After  the  forum  has  been  arranged,  next,  for  the  purpose 
of  seeing  plays  or  festivals  of  the  immortal  gods,  a site  as  healthy 
as  possible  should  be  selected  for  the  theatre,  in  accordance  with 
what  has  been  written  in  the  first  book,  on  the  principles  of  health- 
fulness in  the  sites  of  cities.  For  when  plays  are  given,  the  spec- 
tators, with  their  wives  and  children,  sit  through  them  spell- 
bound, and  their  bodies,  motionless  from  enjoyment,  have  the 
pores  open,  into  which  blowing  winds  find  their  way.  If  these 
winds  come  from  marshy  districts  or  from  other  unwholesome 
quarters,  they  will  introduce  noxious  exhalations  into  the  sys- 
tem. Hence,  such  faults  will  be  avoided  if  the  site  of  the  theatre 
is  somewhat  carefully  selected. 


138 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


2.  We  must  also  beware  that  it  has  not  a southern  exposure. 
When  the  sun  shines  full  upon  the  rounded  part  of  it,  the  air,  be- 
ing shut  up  in  the  curved  enclosure  and  unable  to  circulate,  stays 
there  and  becomes  heated;  and  getting  glowing  hot  it  burns  up-, 
dries  out,  and  impairs  the  fluids  of  the  human  body.  For  these 
reasons,  sites  which  are  unwholesome  in  such  respects  are  to  be 
avoided,  and  healthy  sites  selected. 

3.  The  foundation  walls  will  be  an  easier  matter  if  they  are  on  a 
hillside;  but  if  they  have  to  be  laid  on  a plain  or  in  a marshy  place, 
solidity  must  be  assured  and  substructures  built  in  accordance 
with  what  has  been  written  in  the  third  book,  on  the  foundations 
of  temples.  Above  the  foundation  walls,  the  ascending  rows  of 
seats,  from  the  substructures  up,  should  be  built  of  stone  and 
marble  materials. 

4.  The  curved  cross-aisles  should  be  constructed  in  propor- 
tionate relation,  it  is  thought,  to  the  height  of  the  theatre,  but 
not  higher  than  the  footway  of  the  passage  is  broad.  If  they 
are  loftier,  they  will  throw  back  the  voice  and  drive  it  away  from 
the  upper  portion,  thus  preventing  the  case-endings  of  words 
from  reaching  with  distinct  meaning  the  ears  of  those  who  are  in 
the  uppermost  seats  above  the  cross-aisles.  In  short,  it  should  be 
so  contrived  that  a line  drawn  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  seat 
will  touch  the  top  edges  and  angles  of  all  the  seats.  Thus  the 
voice  will  meet  with  no  obstruction. 

5.  The  different  entrances  ought  to  be  numerous  and  spacious, 
the  upper  not  connected  with  the  lower,  but  built  in  a continuous 
straight  line  from  all  parts  of  the  house,  without  turnings,  so  that 
the  people  may  not  be  crowded  together  when  let  out  from  shows, 
but  may  have  separate  exits  from  all  parts  without  obstructions. 

Particular  pains  must  also  be  taken  that  the  site  be  not  a 
“deaf”  one,  but  one  through  which  the  voice  can  range  with  the 
greatest  clearness.  This  can  be  brought  about  if  a site  is  selected 
where  there  is  no  obstruction  due  to  echo. 

6.  Voice  is  a flowing  breath  of  air,  perceptible  to  the  hearing 
by  contact.  It  moves  in  an  endless  number  of  circular  rounds. 


Chap.  IV] 


HARMONICS 


139 


like  the  innumerably  increasing  circular  waves  which  appear  when 
a stone  is  thrown  into  smooth  water,  and  which  keep  on  spread- 
ing indefinitely  from  the  centre  unless  interrupted  by  narrow 
limits,  or  by  some  obstruction  which  prevents  such  waves  from 
reaching  their  end  in  due  formation.  When  they  are  interrupted 
by  obstructions,  the  first  waves,  flowing  back,  break  up  the  form- 
ation of  those  which  follow. 

7.  In  the  same  manner  the  voice  executes  its  movements  in 
concentric  circles ; but  while  in  the  case  of  water  the  circles  move 
horizontally  on  a plane  surface,  the  voice  not  only  proceeds  hori- 
zontally, but  also  ascends  vertically  by  regular  stages.  Therefore, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  waves  formed  in  the  water,  so  it  is  in  the  case 
of  the  voice : the  first  wave,  when  there  is  no  obstruction  to  inter- 
rupt it,  does  not  break  up  the  second  or  the  following  waves,  but 
they  all  reach  the  ears  of  the  lowest  and  highest  spectators  with- 
out an  echo. 

8.  Hence  the  ancient  architects,  following  in  the  footsteps  of 
nature,  perfected  the  ascending  rows  of  seats  in  theatres  from 
their  investigations  of  the  ascending  voice,  and,  by  means  of  the 
canonical  theory  of  the  mathematicians  and  that  of  the  musicians, 
endeavoured  to  make  every  voice  uttered  on  the  stage  come  with 
greater  clearness  and  sweetness  to  the  ears  of  the  audience.  For 
just  as  musical  instruments  are  brought  to  perfection  of  clearness 
in  the  sound  of  their  strings  by  means  of  bronze  plates  or  horn 
77%e£a,  so  the  ancients  devised  methods  of  increasing  the  power 
of  the  voice  in  theatres  through  the  application  of  harmonics. 


CHAPTER  IV 

HARMONICS 

1.  Harmonics  is  an  obscure  and  difficult  branch  of  musical 
science,  especially  for  those  who  do  not  know  Greek.  If  we  de- 
sire to  treat  of  it,  we  must  use  Greek  words,  because  some  of  them 
have  no  Latin  equivalents.  Hence,  I will  explain  it  as  clearly  as 


140 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


I can  from  the  writings  of  Aristoxenus,  append  his  scheme,  and 
define  the  boundaries  of  the  notes,  so  that  with  somewhat  care- 
ful attention  anybody  may  be  able  to  understand  it  pretty  easily. 

2.  The  voice,  in  its  changes  of  position  when  shifting  pitch, 
becomes  sometimes  high,  sometimes  low,  and  its  movements  are 
of  two  kinds,  in  one  of  which  its  progress  is  continuous,  in  the 
other  by  intervals.  The  continuous  voice  does  not  become  sta- 
tionary at  the  “ boundaries  ” or  at  any  definite  place,  and  so  the 
extremities  of  its  progress  are  not  apparent,  but  the  fact  that 
there  are  differences  of  pitch  is  apparent,  as  in  our  ordinary 
speech  in  sol,  lux,  flos,  vox;  for  in  these  cases  we  cannot  tell  at 
what  pitch  the  voice  begins,  nor  at  what  pitch  it  leaves  off,  but 
the  fact  that  it  becomes  low  from  high  and  high  from  low  is  ap- 
parent to  the  ear.  In  its  progress  by  intervals  the  opposite  is  the 
case.  For  here,  when  the  pitch  shifts,  the  voice,  by  change  of 
position,  stations  itself  on  one  pitch,  then  on  another,  and,  as  it 
frequently  repeats  this  alternating  process,  it  appears  to  the 
senses  to  become  stationary,  as  happens  in  singing  when  we  pro- 
duce a variation  of  the  mode  by  changing  the  pitch  of  the  voice. 
And  so,  since  it  moves  by  intervals,  the  points  at  which  it  begins 
and  where  it  leaves  off  are  obviously  apparent  in  the  boundaries 
of  the  notes,  but  the  intermediate  points  escape  notice  and  are 
obscure,  owing  to  the  intervals. 

3.  There  are  three  classes  of  modes:  first,  that  which  the 
Greeks  term  the  enharmonic ; second,  the  chromatic ; third,  the  dia- 
tonic. The  enharmonic  mode  is  an  artistic  conception,  and  there- 
fore execution  in  it  has  a specially  severe  dignity  and  distinction. 
The  chromatic,  with  its  delicate  subtlety  and  with  the  “crowd- 
ing” of  its  notes,  gives  a sweeter  kind  of  pleasure.  In  the  dia- 
tonic, the  distance  between  the  intervals  is  easier  to  understand, 
because  it  is  natural.  These  three  classes  differ  in  their  arrange- 
ment of  the  tetrachord.  In  the  enharmonic,  the  tetrachord  con- 
sists of  two  tones  and  two  “dieses.”  A diesis  is  a quarter  tone; 
hence  in  a semitone  there  are  included  two  dieses.  In  the  chro- 
matic there  are  two  semitones  arranged  in  succession,  and  the 


Chap.  IV] 


HARMONICS 


141 


third  interval  is  a tone  and  a half.  In  the  diatonic,  there  are  two 
consecutive  tones,  and  the  third  interval  of  a semitone  com- 
pletes the  tetrachord.  Hence,  in  the  three  classes,  the  tetra- 
chords  are  equally  composed  of  two  tones  and  a semitone,  but 
when  they  are  regarded  separately  according  to  the  terms  of 
each  class,  they  differ  in  the  arrangement  of  their  intervals. 

4.  Now  then,  these  intervals  of  tones  and  semitones  of  the 
tetrachord  are  a division  introduced  by  nature  in  the  case  of  the 
voice,  and  she  has  defined  their  limits  by  measures  according  to 
the  magnitude  of  the  intervals,  and  determined  their  character- 
istics in  certain  different  ways.  These  natural  laws  are  followed 
by  the  skilled  workmen  who  fashion  musical  instruments,  in 
bringing  them  to  the  perfection  of  their  proper  concords. 

5.  In  each  class  there  are  eighteen  notes,  termed  in  Greek 
<f)66ryryoi,  of  which  eight  in  all  the  three  classes  are  constant  and 
fixed,  while  the  other  ten,  not  being  tuned  to  the  same  pitch,  are 
variable.  The  fixed  notes  are  those  which,  being  placed  between 
the  moveable,  make  up  the  unity  of  the  tetrachord,  and  remain 
unaltered  in  their  boundaries  according  to  the  different  classes. 
Their  names  are  proslambanomenos,  hypate  hypaton,  hypate 
meson,  mese,  nete  synhemmenon,  paramese,  nete  diezeugmenon, 
nete  hyperbolaeon.  The  moveable  notes  are  those  which,  being 
arranged  in  the  tetrachord  between  the  immoveable,  change  from 
place  to  place  according  to  the  different  classes.  They  are  called 


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VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


parhypate  hypaton,  lichanos  hypaton,  parhypate  meson,  lichanos 
meson,  trite  synhemmenon,  paranete  synhemmenon,  trite  die- 
zeugmenon,  paranete  diezeugmenon,  trite  hyperbolaeon,  para- 
nete hyperbolaeon. 

6.  These  notes,  from  being  moveable,  take  on  different  quali- 
ties; for  they  may  stand  at  different  intervals  and  increasing  dis- 
tances. Thus,  parhypate,  which  in  the  enharmonic  is  at  the  inter- 
val of  half  a semitone  from  hypate,  has  a semitone  interval  when 
transferred  to  the  chromatic.  What  is  called  lichanos  in  the  en- 
harmonic is  at  the  interval  of  a semitone  from  hypate;  but  when 
shifted  to  the  chromatic,  it  goes  two  semitones  away;  and  in 
the  diatonic  it  is  at  an  interval  of  three  semitones  from  hypate. 
Hence  the  ten  notes  produce  three  different  kinds  of  modes  on 
account  of  their  changes  of  position  in  the  classes. 

7.  There  are  five  tetrachords : first,  the  lowest,  termed  in  Greek 
vttcltov  ; second,  the  middle,  called  fiecrov\  third,  the  conjunct,  termed 
c TvvrjfjLfievov ; fourth,  the  disjunct,  named  Sie^evy^evov;  the  fifth,  which 
is  the  highest,  is  termed  in  Greek  v7rep/36\cuov.  The  concords, 
termed  in  Greek  avfufxovLai,  of  which  human  modulation  will  natur- 
ally admit,  are  six  in  number : the  fourth,  the  fifth,  the  octave, 
the  octave  and  fourth,  the  octave  and  fifth,  and  the  double  octave. 

8.  Their  names  are  therefore  due  to  numerical  value;  for  when 
the  voice  becomes  stationary  on  some  one  note,  and  then,  shift- 
ing its  pitch,  changes  its  position  and  passes  to  the  limit  of  the 
fourth  note  from  that  one,  we  use  the  term  “fourth”;  when  it 
passes  to  the  fifth,  the  term  is  “fifth.”  1 

9.  For  there  can  be  no  consonancies  either  in  the  case  of  the 
notes  of  stringed  instruments  or  of  the  singing  voice,  between 
two  intervals  or  between  three  or  six  or  seven;  but,  as  written 
above,  it  is  only  the  harmonies  of  the  fourth,  the  fifth,  and  so  on 
up  to  the  double  octave,  that  have  boundaries  naturally  corres- 
ponding to  those  of  the  voice:  and  these  concords  are  produced 
by  the  union  of  the  notes. 

1 The  remainder  of  this  section  is  omitted  from  the  translation  as  being  an  obvious 
interpolation. 


Chap.  V] 


SOUNDING  VESSELS 


143 


CHAPTER  V 

SOUNDING  VESSELS  IN  THE  THEATRE 

1.  In  accordance  with  the  foregoing  investigations  on  mathe- 
matical principles,  let  bronze  vessels  be  made,  proportionate  to 
the  size  of  the  theatre,  and  let  them  be  so  fashioned  that,  when 
touched,  they  may  produce  with  one  another  the  notes  of  the 
fourth,  the  fifth,  and  so  on  up  to  the  double  octave.  Then,  having 
constructed  niches  in  between  the  seats  of  the  theatre,  let  the 
vessels  be  arranged  in  them,  in  accordance  with  musical  laws,  in 
such  a way  that  they  nowhere  touch  the  wall,  but  have  a clear 
space  all  round  them  and  room  over  their  tops.  They  should  be  set 
upside  down,  and  be  supported  on  the  side  facing  the  stage  by 
wedges  not  less  than  half  a foot  high.  Opposite  each  niche,  aper- 
tures should  be  left  in  the  surface  of  the  seat  next  below,  two  feet 
long  and  half  a foot  deep. 

2.  The  arrangement  of  these  vessels,  with  reference  to  the 
situations  in  which  they  should  be  placed,  may  be  described  as 
follows.  If  the  theatre  be  of  no  great  size,  mark  out  a horizontal 
range  halfway  up,  and  in  it  construct  thirteen  arched  niches 
with  twelve  equal  spaces  between  them,  so  that  of  the  above 
mentioned  “echea”  those  which  give  the  note  nete hyperbolaeon 
may  be  placed  first  on  each  side,  in  the  niches  which  are  at  the 
extreme  ends;  next  to  the  ends  and  a fourth  below  in  pitch,  the  note 
nete  diezeugmenon;  third,  paramese,  a fourth  below;  fourth,  nete 
synhemmenon;  fifth,  mese,  a fourth  below;  sixth,  hypate  meson, 
a fourth  below;  and  in  the  middle  and  another  fourth  below,  one 
vessel  giving  the  note  hypate  hypaton. 

3.  On  this  principle  of  arrangement,  the  voice,  uttered  from 
the  stage  as  from  a centre,  and  spreading  and  striking  against 
the  cavities  of  the  different  vessels,  as  it  comes  in  contact  with 
them,  will  be  increased  in  clearness  of  sound,  and  will  wake  an 
harmonious  note  in  unison  with  itself. 

But  if  the  theatre  be  rather  large,  let  its  height  be  divided 


144 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


into  four  parts,  so  that  three  horizontal  ranges  of  niches  may 
be  marked  out  and  constructed:  one  for  the  enharmonic,  an- 
other for  the  chromatic,  and  the  third  for  the  diatonic  system. 
Beginning  with  the  bottom  range,  let  the  arrangement  be  as  de- 
scribed above  in  the  case  of  a smaller  theatre,  but  on  the  enhar- 
monic system. 

4.  In  the  middle  range,  place  first  at  the  extreme  ends  the 
vessels  which  give  the  note  of  the  chromatic  hyperbolaeon;  next 


to  them,  those  which  give  the  chromatic  diezeugmenon,  a fourth 
below;  third,  the  chromatic  synhemmenon;  fourth,  the  chromatic 
meson,  a fourth  below;  fifth,  the  chromatic  hypaton,  a fourth 
below;  sixth,  the  paramese,  for  this  is  both  the  concord  of  the  fifth 
to  the  chromatic  hyperbolaeon,  and  the  concord1  of  the  chro- 
matic synhemmenon. 

5.  No  vessel  is  to  be  placed  in  the  middle,  for  the  reason  that 
there  is  no  other  note  in  the  chromatic  system  that  forms  a 
natural  concord  of  sound. 

In  the  highest  division  and  range  of  niches,  place  at  the  extreme 
ends  vessels  fashioned  so  as  to  give  the  note  of  the  diatonic  hyper- 
bolaeon; next,  the  diatonic  diezeugmenon,  a fourth  below;  third, 
the  diatonic  synhemmenon ; fourth,  the  diatonic  meson,  a fourth 
below;  fifth,  the  diatonic  hypaton,  a fourth  below;  sixth,  the 

1 Codd.  diatessaron,  which  is  impossible,  paramese  being  the  concord  of  the  fourth 
to  the  chromatic  meson,  and  identical  with  the  chromatic  synhemmenon. 


Chap.  V] 


SOUNDING  VESSELS 


145 


proslambanomenos,  a fourth  below;  in  the  middle,  the  note 
mese,  for  this  is  both  the  octave  to  proslambanomenos,  and  the 
concord  of  the  fifth  to  the  diatonic  hypaton. 

6.  Whoever  wishes  to  carry  out  these  principles  with  ease,  has 
only  to  consult  the  scheme  at  the  end  of  this  book,  drawn  up  in 
accordance  with  the  laws  of  music.  It  was  left  by  Aristoxenus, 
who  with  great  ability  and  labour  classified  and  arranged  in  it  the 
different  modes.  In  accordance  with  it,  and  by  giving  heed  to 
these  theories,  one  can  easily  bring  a theatre  to  perfection,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  nature  of  the  voice,  so  as  to  give  pleasure 
to  the  audience. 

7.  Somebody  will  perhaps  say  that  many  theatres  are  built 
every  year  in  Rome,  and  that  in  them  no  attention  at  all  is  paid 
to  these  principles;  but  he  will  be  in  error,  from  the  fact  that  all 
our  public  theatres  made  of  wood  contain  a great  deal  of  board- 
ing, which  must  be  resonant.  This  may  be  observed  from  the 
behaviour  of  those  who  sing  to  the  lyre,  who,  when  they  wish 
to  sing  in  a higher  key,  turn  towards  the  folding  doors  on  the 
stage,  and  thus  by  their  aid  are  reinforced  with  a sound  in  har- 
mony with  the  voice.  But  when  theatres  are  built  of  solid  ma- 
terials like  masonry,  stone,  or  marble,  which  cannot  be  resonant, 
then  the  principles  of  the  “echea”  must  be  applied. 

8.  If,  however,  it  is  asked  in  what  theatre  these  vessels  have 
been  employed,  we  cannot  point  to  any  in  Rome  itself,  but  only 
to  those  in  the  districts  of  Italy  and  in  a good  many  Greek  states. 
We  have  also  the  evidence  of  Lucius  Mummius,  who,  after  de- 
stroying the  theatre  in  Corinth,  brought  its  bronze  vessels  to 
Rome,  and  made  a dedicatory  offering  at  the  temple  of  Luna  with 
the  money  obtained  from  the  sale  of  them.  Besides,  many  skilful 
architects,  in  constructing  theatres  in  small  towns,  have,  for 
lack  of  means,  taken  large  jars  made  of  clay,  but  similarly  reso- 
nant, and  have  produced  very  advantageous  results  by  arranging 
them  on  the  principles  described. 


146 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


CHAPTER  VI 

PLAN  OF  THE  THEATRE 

1.  The  plan  of  the  theatre  itself  is  to  be  constructed  as  follows. 
Having  fixed  upon  the  principal  centre,  draw  a line  of  circum- 
ference equivalent  to  what  is  to  be  the  perimeter  at  the  bottom, 

.and  in  it  inscribe  four  equilateral  triangles,  at  equal  distances 
apart  and  touching  the  boundary  line  of  the  circle,  as  the  as- 
trologers do  in  a figure  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac,  when 
they  are  making  computations  from  the  musical  harmony  of  the 
stars.  Taking  that  one  of  these  triangles  whose  side  is  nearest  to 
the  scaena,  let  the  front  of  the  scaena  be  determined  by  the  line 
where  that  side  cuts  off  a segment  of  the  circle  (A-B),  and  draw, 
through  the  centre,  a parallel  line  (C-D)  set  off  from  that  posi- 
tion, to  separate  the  platform  of  the  stage  from  the  space  of  the 
orchestra. 

2.  The  platform  has  to  be  made  deeper  than  that  of  the  Greeks, 
because  all  our  artists  perform  on  the  stage,  while  the  orchestra 
contains  the  places  reserved  for  the  seats  of  senators.  The 
height  of  this  platform  must  be  not  more  than  five  feet,  in  order 
that  those  who  sit  in  the  orchestra  may  be  able  to  see  the  per- 
formances of  all  the  actors.  The  sections  (cunei)  for  spectators  in 
the  theatre  should  be  so  divided,  that  the  angles  of  the  triangles 
which  run  about  the  circumference  of  the  circle  may  give  the 
direction  for  the  flights  of  steps  between  the  sections,  as  far  as  up 
to  the  first  curved  cross-aisle.  Above  this,  the  upper  sections  are 
to  be  laid  out,  midway  between  (the  lower  sections),  with  alter- 
nating passage-ways. 

3.  The  angles  at  the  bottom,  which  give  the  directions  for  the 
flights  of  steps,  will  be  seven  in  number  (C,  E,  F,  G,  H,  I,  D) ; the 
other  five  angles  will  determine  the  arrangement  of  the  scene: 
thus,  the  angle  in  the  middle  ought  to  have  the  “royal  door  ”(K) 
opposite  to  it;  the  angles  to  the  right  and  left  (L,  M)  will  desig- 
nate the  position  of  the  doors  for  guest  chambers;  and  the  two 


Chap.  VI] 


PLAN  OF  THE  THEATRE 


147 


THE  ROMAN  THEATRE  ACCORDING  TO  VITRUVIUS 


148 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


outermost  angles  (A,  B)  will  point  to  the  passages  in  the  wings. 
The  steps  for  the  spectators’  places,  where  the  seats  are  arranged, 
should  be  not  less  than  a foot  and  a palm  in  height,  nor  more 
than  a foot  and  six  fingers;  their  depth  should  be  fixed  at  not 
more  than  two  and  a half  feet,  nor  less  than  two  feet. 

4.  The  roof  of  the  colonnade  to  be  built  at  the  top  of  the  rows 
of  seats,  should  lie  level  with  the  top  of  the  “scaena,”  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  voice  will  then  rise  with  equal  power  until  it  reaches 
the  highest  rows  of  seats  and  the  roof.  If  the  roof  is  not  so  high, 
in  proportion  as  it  is  lower,  it  will  check  the  voice  at  the  point 
which  the  sound  first  reaches. 

5.  Take  one  sixth  of  the  diameter  of  the  orchestra  between 
the  lowest  steps,  and  let  the  lower  seats  at  the  ends  on  both  sides 
be  cut  away  to  a height  of  that  dimension  so  as  to  leave  en- 
trances (O,  P) . At  the  point  where  this  cutting  away  occurs,  fix 
the  soffits  of  the  passages.  Thus  their  vaulting  will  be  sufficiently 
high. 

6.  The  length  of  the  “scaena”  ought  to  be  double  the  diameter 
of  the  orchestra.  The  height  of  the  podium,  starting  from  the 
level  of  the  stage,  is,  including  the  corona  and  cymatium,  one 
twelfth  of  the  diameter  of  the  orchestra.  Above  the  podium, 
the  columns,  including  their  capitals  and  bases,  should  have  a 
height  of  one  quarter  of  the  same  diameter,  and  the  architraves 
and  ornaments  of  the  columns  should  be  one  fifth  of  their  height. 
The  parapet  above,  including  its  cyma  and  corona,  is  one 
half  the  height  of  the  parapet  below.  Let  the  columns  above  this 
parapet  be  one  fourth  less  in  height  than  the  columns  below,  and 
the  architraves  and  ornaments  of  these  columns  one  fifth  of  their 
height.  If  the  “scaena”  is  to  have  three  stories,  let  the  upper- 
most parapet  be  half  the  height  of  the  intermediate  one,  the 
columns  at  the  top  one  fourth  less  high  than  the  intermediate, 
and  the  architraves  and  coronae  of  these  columns  one  fifth  of 
their  height  as  before. 

7.  It  is  not  possible,  however,  that  in  all  theatres  these  rules 
of  symmetry  should  answer  all  conditions  and  purposes,  but  the 


Chap.  VI] 


PLAN  OF  THE  THEATRE 


149 


THE  THEATRE  AT  ASPENDUS 


From  Durm 


150 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


architect  ought  to  consider  to  what  extent  he  must  follow  the 
principle  of  symmetry,  and  to  what  extent  it  may  be  modified 
to  suit  the  nature  of  the  site  or  the  size  of  the  work.  There  are,  of 
course,  some  things  which,  for  utility’s  sake,  must  be  made  of 
the  same  size  in  a small  theatre,  and  a large  one:  such  as  the 
steps,  curved  cross-aisles,  their  parapets,  the  passages,  stair- 
ways, stages,  tribunals,  and  any  other  things  which  occur  that 
make  it  necessary  to  give  up  symmetry  so  as  not  to  interfere 
with  utility.  Again,  if  in  the  course  of  the  work  any  of  the 
material  fall  short,  such  as  marble,  timber,  or  anything  else  that 
is  provided,  it  will  not  be  amiss  to  make  a slight  reduction 
or  addition,  provided  that  it  is  done  without  going  too  far, 
but  with  intelligence.  This  will  be  possible,  if  the  architect  is  a 
man  of  practical  experience  and,  besides,  not  destitute  of  clever- 
ness and  skill. 

8.  The  “scaena”  itself  displays  the  following  scheme.  In  the 
centre  are  double  doors  decorated  like  those  of  a royal  palace. 
At  the  right  and  left  are  the  doors  of  the  guest  chambers.  Beyond 
are  spaces  provided  for  decoration  — places  that  the  Greeks 
call  TrepidfCTOL , because  in  these  places  are  triangular  pieces  of 
machinery  (A,  A)  which  revolve,  each  having  three  decorated 
faces.  When  the  play  is  to  be  changed,  or  when  gods  enter  to  the 
accompaniment  of  sudden  claps  of  thunder,  these  may  be  re- 
volved and  present  a face  differently  decorated.  Beyond  these 
places  are  the  projecting  wings  which  afford  entrances  to  the 
stage,  one  from  the  forum,  the  other  from  abroad. 

9.  There  are  three  kinds  of  scenes,  one  called  the  tragic,  second, 
the  comic,  third,  the  satyric.  Their  decorations  are  different  and 
unlike  each  other  in  scheme.  Tragic  scenes  are  delineated  with 
columns,  pediments,  statues,  and  other  objects  suited  to  kings; 
comic  scenes  exhibit  private  dwellings,  with  balconies  and  views 
representing  rows  of  windows,  after  the  manner  of  ordinary 
dwellings;  satyric  scenes  are  decorated  with  trees,  caverns,  moun- 
tains, and  other  rustic  objects  delineated  in  landscape  style. 


Chap.  VII] 


GREEK  THEATRES 


151 


CHAPTER  VII 

GREEK  THEATRES 

1.  In  the  theatres  of  the  Greeks,  these  same  rules  of  construc- 
tion are  not  to  be  followed  in  all  respects.  First,  in  the  circle  at 
the  bottom  where  the  Roman  has  four  triangles,  the  Greek  has 
three  squares  with  their  angles  touching  the  line  of  circumfer- 
ence. The  square  whose  side  is  nearest  to  the  “scaena,  ” and  cuts 
off  a segment  of  the  circle,  determines  by  this  line  the  limits  of 
the  “proscaenium”  (A,  B).  Parallel  to  this  line  and  tangent 
to  the  outer  circumference  of  the  segment,  a line  is  drawn  which 
fixes  the  front  of  the  “scaena”  (C-D).  Through  the  centre  of 
the  orchestra  and  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  “proscaenium,” 
a line  is  laid  off,  and  centres  are  marked  where  it  cuts  the  circum- 
ference to  the  right  and  left  (E,  F)  at  the  ends  of  the  half-circle. 
Then,  with  the  compasses  fixed  at  the  right,  an  arc  is  described 
from  the  horizontal  distance  at  the  left  to  the  left  hand  side 
of  the  44  proscaenium  ” (F,  G) ; again  with  the  centre  at  the 
left  end,  an  arc  is  described  from  the  horizontal  distance  at  the 
right  to  the  right  hand  side  of  the  44  proscaenium”  (E,  H). 

2.  As  a result  of  this  plan  with  three  centres,  the  Greeks  have 
a roomier  orchestra,  and  a “scaena”  set  further  back,  as  well  as 
a stage  of  less  depth.  They  call  this  the  Xoyelov,  for  the  reason 
that  there  the  tragic  and  comic  actors  perform  on  the  stage, 
while  other  artists  give  their  performances  in  the  entire  orchestra; 
hence,  from  this  fact  they  are  given  in  Greek  the  distinct  names 
“Scenic”  and  “Thymelic.”  The  height  of  this  “logeum”  ought 
to  be  not  less  than  ten  feet  nor  more  than  twelve.  Let  the  ascend- 
ing flights  of  steps  between  the  wedges  of  seats,  as  far  up  as  the 
first  curved  cross-aisle,  be  laid  out  on  lines  directly  opposite  to 
the  angles  of  the  squares.  Above  the  cross-aisle,  let  other  flights 
be  laid  out  in  the  middle  between  the  first;  and  at  the  top,  as  often 
as  there  is  a new  cross-aisle,  the  number  of  flights  of  steps  is 
always  increased  to  the  same  extent. 


152 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


Chap.  VIII] 


ACOUSTICS 


153 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ACOUSTICS  OF  THE  SITE  OF  A THEATRE 

1.  All  this  having  been  settled  with  the  greatest  pains  and 
skill,  we  must  see  to  it,  with  still  greater  care,  that  a site  has  been 
selected  where  the  voice  has  a gentle  fall,  and  is  not  driven  back 
with  a recoil  so  as  to  convey  an  indistinct  meaning  to  the  ear. 
There  are  some  places  which  from  their  very  nature  interfere 
with  the  course  of  the  voice,  as  for  instance  the  dissonant,  which 
are  termed  in  Greek  /caT^%ouPTe? ; the  circumsonant,  which  with 
them  are  named  7rep£77%o{We?;  again  the  resonant,  which  are 
termed  azm^ofWe? ; and  the  consonant,  which  they  call  awr)- 
'XpvvTes.  The  dissonant  are  those  places  in  which  the  first  sound 
uttered  that  is  carried  up  high,  strikes  against  solid  bodies  above, 
and,  being  driven  back,  checks  as  it  sinks  to  the  bottom  the  rise 
of  the  succeeding  sound. 

2.  The  circumsonant  are  those  in  which  the  voice  spreads 
all  round,  and  then  is  forced  into  the  middle,  where  it  dissolves, 
the  case-endings  are  not  heard,  and  it  dies  away  there  in  sounds 
of  indistinct  meaning.  The  resonant  are  those  in  which  it  comes 
into  contact  with  some  solid  substance  and  recoils,  thus  producing 
an  echo,  and  making  the  terminations  of  cases  sound  double. 
The  consonant  are  those  in  which  it  is  supported  from  below, 
increases  as  it  goes  up,  and  reaches  the  ears  in  words  which  are 
distinct  and  clear  in  tone.  Hence,  if  there  has  been  careful 
attention  in  the  selection  of  the  site,  the  effect  of  the  voice  will, 
through  this  precaution,  be  perfectly  suited  to  the  purposes  of  a 
theatre. 

The  drawings  of  the  plans  may  be  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  this  difference,  that  theatres  designed  from  squares  are 
meant  to  be  used  by  Greeks,  while  Roman  theatres  are  designed 
from  equilateral  triangles.  Whoever  is  willing  to  follow  these 
directions  will  be  able  to  construct  perfectly  correct  theatres. 


154 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


CHAPTER  IX 

COLONNADES  AND  WALKS 

1.  Colonnades  must  be  constructed  behind  the  scaena,  so 
that  when  sudden  showers  interrupt  plays,  the  people  may 
have  somewhere  to  retire  from  the  theatre,  and  so  that  there 
may  be  room  for  the  preparation  of  all  the  outfit  of  the  stage. 
Such  places,  for  instance,  are  the  colonnades  of  Pompey,  and 
also,  in  Athens,  the  colonnades  of  Eumenes  and  the  fane  of 
Father  Bacchus;  also,  as  you  leave  the  theatre,  the  music  hall 
which  Themistocles  surrounded  with  stone  columns,  and  roofed 
with  the  yards  and  masts  of  ships  captured  from  the  Persians. 
It  was  burned  during  the  war  with  Mithridates,  and  afterwards 
restored  by  King  Ariobarzanes.  At  Smyrna  there  is  the  Stratoni- 
ceum,  at  Tralles,  a colonnade  on  each  side  of  the  scaena  above 
the  race  course,  and  in  other  cities  which  have  had  careful  archi- 
tects there  are  colonnades  and  walks  about  the  theatres. 

2.  The  approved  way  of  building  them  requires  that  they 
should  be  double,  and  have  Doric  columns  on  the  outside,  with 
the  architraves  and  their  ornaments  finished  according  to  the 
law  of  modular  proportion.  The  approved  depth  for  them  re- 
quires that  the  depth,  from  the  lower  part  of  the  outermost 
columns  to  the  columns  in  the  middle,  and  from  the  middle 
columns  to  the  wall  enclosing  the  walk  under  the  colonnade, 
should  be  equal  to  the  height  of  the  outer  columns.  Let  the  middle 
columns  be  one  fifth  higher  than  the  outer  columns,  and  designed 
in  the  Ionic  or  Corinthian  style. 

3.  The  columns  will  not  be  subject  to  the  same  rules  of  sym- 
metry and  proportion  which  I prescribed  in  the  case  of  sanctu- 
aries; for  the  dignity  which  ought  to  be  their  quality  in  temples 
of  the  gods  is  one  thing,  but  their  elegance  in  colonnades  and 
other  public  works  is  quite  another.  Hence,  if  the  columns  are 
to  be  of  the  Doric  order,  let  their  height,  including  the  capital,  be 
measured  off  into  fifteen  parts.  Of  these  parts,  let  one  be  fixed 


Chap.  IX] 


COLONNADES  AND  WALKS 


155 


upon  to  form  the  module,  and  in  accordance  with  this  module 
the  whole  work  is  to  be  developed.  Let  the  thickness  of  the 
columns  at  the  bottom  be  two  modules;  an  intercolumniation, 
five  and  a half  modules;  the  height  of  a column,  excluding  the 
capital,  fourteen  modules;  the  capital,  one  module  in  height  and 
two  and  one  sixth  modules  in  breadth.  Let  the  modular  propor- 
tions of  the  rest  of  the  work  be  carried  out  as  written  in  the 
fourth  book  in  the  case  of  temples. 

4.  But  if  the  columns  are  to  be  Ionic,  let  the  shaft,  excluding 
base  and  capital,  be  divided  into  eight  and  one  half  parts,  and 
let  one  of  these  be  assigned  to  the  thickness  of  a column.  Let 
the  base,  including  the  plinth,  be  fixed  at  half  the  thickness,  and 
let  the  proportions  of  the  capital  be  as  shown  in  the  third  book. 
If  the’ column  is  to  be  Corinthian,  let  its  shaft  and  base  be  pro- 
portioned as  in  the  Ionic,  but  its  capital,  as  has  been  written  in 
the  fourth  book.  In  the  stylobates,  let  the  increase  made  there 
by  means  of  the  “ scamilli  impares  ” be  taken  from  the  description 
written  above  in  the  third  book.  Let  the  architraves,  coronae, 
and  all  the  rest  be  developed,  in  proportion  to  the  columns,  from 
what  has  been  written  in  the  foregoing  books. 

5.  The  space  in  the  middle,  between  the  colonnades  and  open 
to  the  sky,  ought  to  be  embellished  with  green  things;  for  walking 
in  the  open  air  is  very  healthy,  particularly  for  the  eyes,  since  the 
refined  and  rarefied  air  that  comes  from  green  things,  finding  its 
way  in  because  of  the  physical  exercise,  gives  a clean-cut  image, 
and,  by  clearing  away  the  gross  humours  from  the  eyes,  leaves 
the  sight  keen  and  the  image  distinct.  Besides,  as  the  body  gets 
warm  with  exercise  in  walking,  this  air,  by  sucking  out  the 
humours  from  the  frame,  diminishes  their  superabundance,  and 
disperses  and  thus  reduces  that  superfluity  which  is  more  than 
the  body  can  bear. 

6.  That  this  is  so  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  misty  vapours 
never  arise  from  springs  of  water  which  are  under  cover,  nor 
even  from  watery  marshes  which  are  underground;  but  in  un- 
covered places  which  are  open  to  the  sky,  when  the  rising 


156 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


sun  begins  to  act  upon  the  world  with  its  heat,  it  brings  out  the 
vapour  from  damp  and  watery  spots,  and  rolls  it  in  masses  up- 
wards. Therefore,  if  it  appears  that  in  places  open  to  the  sky  the 
more  noxious  humours  are  sucked  out  of  the  body  by  the  air,  as 
they  obviously  are  from  the  earth  in  the  form  of  mists,  I think 
there  is  no  doubt  that  cities  should  be  provided  with  the  room- 
iest and  most  ornamented  walks,  laid  out  under  the  free  and 
open  sky. 

7.  That  they  may  be  always  dry  and  not  muddy,  the  following 
is  to  be  done.  Let  them  be  dug  down  and  cleared  out  to  the  lowest 
possible  depth.  At  the  right  and  left  construct  covered  drains, 
and  in  their  walls,  which  are  directed  towards  the  walks,  lay 
earthen  pipes  with  their  lower  ends  inclined  into  the  drains.  Hav- 
ing finished  these,  fill  up  the  place  with  charcoal,  and  then  strew 
sand  over  the  walks  and  level  them  off.  Hence,  on  account  of 
the  porous  nature  of  the  charcoal  and  the  insertion  of  the  pipes 
into  the  drains,  quantities  of  water  will  be  conducted  away, 
and  the  walks  will  thus  be  rendered  perfectly  dry  and  without 
moisture. 

8.  Furthermore,  our  ancestors  in  establishing  these  works 
provided  cities  with  storehouses  for  an  indispensable  material. 
The  fact  is  that  in  sieges  everything  else  is  easier  to  procure  than 
is  wood.  Salt  can  easily  be  brought  in  beforehand;  corn  can  be  got 
together  quickly  by  the  State  or  by  individuals,  and  if  it  gives 
out,  the  defence  may  be  maintained  on  cabbage,  meat,  or  beans; 
water  can  be  had  by  digging  wells,  or  when  there  are  sudden  falls 
of  rain,  by  collecting  it  from  the  tiles.  But  a stock  of  wood,  which 
is  absolutely  necessary  for  cooking  food,  is  a difficult  and  trouble- 
some thing  to  provide;  for  it  is  slow  to  gather  and  a good  deal 
is  consumed. 

9.  On  such  occasions,  therefore,  these  walks  are  thrown  open, 
and  a definite  allowance  granted  to  each  inhabitant  according 
to  tribes.  Thus  these  uncovered  walks  insure  two  excellent  things: 
first,  health  in  time  of  peace;  secondly,  safety  in  time  of  war. 
Hence,  walks  that  are  developed  on  these  principles,  and  built 


Photo  Brooklyn  Institute 

THE  TEPIDARIUM  OF  THE  STABIAN  BATHS  AT  POMPEII 


Photo  Brooklyn  Institute 

APODYTERIUM  FOR  WOMEN  IN  THE  STABIAN  BATHS  AT  POMPEII 


Chap.  X] 


BATHS 


157 


not  only  behind  the  “scaena”  of  theatres,  but  also  at  the  temples 
of  all  the  gods,  will  be  capable  of  being  of  great  use  to  cities. 

As  it  appears  that  we  have  given  an  adequate  account  of  them, 
next  will  follow  descriptions  of  the  arrangements  of  baths. 


CHAPTER  X 

BATHS 

1.  In  the  first  place,  the  warmest  possible  situation  must  be 
selected;  that  is,  one  which  faces  away  from  the  north  and  north- 
east. The  rooms  for  the  hot  and  tepid  baths  should  be  lighted 
from  the  southwest,  or,  if  the  nature  of  the  situation  prevents  this, 
at  all  events  from  the  south,  because  the  set  time  for  bathing  is 
principally  from  midday  to  evening.  We  must  also  see  to  it  that 
the  hot  bath  rooms  in  the  women’s  and  men’s  departments  adjoin 
each  other,  and  are  situated  in  the  same  quarter;  for  thus  it  will 
be  possible  that  the  same  furnace  should  serve  both  of  them  and 
their  fittings.  Three  bronze  cauldrons  are  to  be  set  over  the  fur- 
nace, one  for  hot,  another  for  tepid,  and  the  third  for  cold  water, 
placed  in  such  positions  that  the  amount  of  water  which  flows 
out  of  the  hot  water  cauldron  may  be  replaced  from  that  for  tepid 
water,  and  in  the  same  way  the  cauldron  for  tepid  water  may  be 
supplied  from  that  for  cold.  The  arrangement  must  allow  the  semi- 
cylinders for  the  bath  basins  to  be  heated  from  the  same  furnace. 

2.  The  hanging  floors  of  The  hot  bath  rooms  are  to  be  con- 
structed as  follows.  First  the  surface  of  the  ground  should  be  laid 
with  tiles  a foot  and  a half  square,  sloping  towards  the  furnace  in 
such  a way  that,  if  a ball  is  thrown  in,  it  cannot  stop  inside  but 
must  return  of  itself  to  the  furnace  room;  thus  the  heat  of  the  fire 
will  more  readily  spread  under  the  hanging  flooring.  Upon  them, 
pillars  made  of  eight-inch  bricks  are  built,  and  set  at  such  a dis- 
tance apart  that  two-foot  tiles  may  be  used  to  cover  them.  These 
pillars  should  be  two  feet  in  height,  laid  with  clay  mixed  with  hair, 
and  covered  on  top  with  the  two-foot  tiles  which  support  the  floor. 


158 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


3.  The  vaulted  ceilings  will  be  more  serviceable  if  built  of  ma- 
sonry; but  if  they  are  of  framework,  they  should  have  tile  work  on 
the  under  side,  to  be  constructed  as  follows.  Let  iron  bars  or  arcs 
be  made,  and  hang  them  to  the  framework  by  means  of  iron  hooks 
set  as  close  together  as  possible;  and  let  these  bars  or  arcs  be 
placed  at  such  distances  apart  that  each  pair  of  them  may  support 
and  carry  an  unflanged  tile.  Thus  the  entire  vaulting  will  be 


THE  STABIAN  BATHS  AT  POMPEII 


S,S.  Shops.  B.  Private  Baths.  A-T.  Men’s  Bath.  A'-T'.  Women’s  Baths.  E,E'.  Entrances. 
A, A'.  Apodyteria.  F.  Frigidarium.  T,T'.  Tepidarium.  C,C'.  Caldarium.  K,K,K.  Kettles  in 
furnace  room.  P.  Piscina. 


Chap.  XI] 


THE  PALAESTRA 


159 


completely  supported  on  iron.  These  vaults  should  have  the 
joints  on  their  upper  side  daubed  with  clay  mixed  with  hair,  and 
their  under  side,  facing  the  floor,  should  first  be  plastered  with 
pounded  tile  mixed  with  lime,  and  then  covered  with  polished 
stucco  in  relief  or  smooth.  Vaults  in  hot  bath  rooms  will  be  more 
serviceable  if  they  are  doubled;  for  then  the  moisture  from  the 
heat  will  not  be  able  to  spoil  the  timber  in  the  framework,  but  will 
merely  circulate  between  the  two  vaults. 

4.  The  size  of  the  baths  must  depend  upon  the  number  of  the 
population.  The  rooms  should  be  thus  proportioned:  let  their 
breadth  be  one  third  of  their  length,  excluding  the  niches  for  the 
washbowl  and  the  bath  basin.  The  washbowl  ought  without  fail 
to  be  placed  under  a window,  so  that  the  shadows  of  those  who 
stand  round  it  may  not  obstruct  the  light.  Niches  for  washbowls 
must  be  made  so  roomy  that  when  the  first  comers  have  taken 
their  places,  the  others  who  are  waiting  round  may  have  proper 
standing  room.  The  bath  basin  should  be  not  less  than  six  feet 
broad  from  the  wall  to  the  edge,  the  lower  step  and  the  “ cushion  ” 
taking  up  two  feet  of  this  space. 

5.  The  Laconicum  and  other  sweating  baths  must  adjoin  the 
tepid  room,  and  their  height  to  the  bottom  of  the  curved  dome 
should  be  equal  to  their  width.  Let  an  aperture  be  left  in  the 
middle  of  the  dome  with  a bronze  disc  hanging  from  it  by  chains. 
By  raising  and  lowering  it,  the  temperature  of  the  sweating 
bath  can  be  regulated.  The  chamber  itself  ought,  as  it  seems,  to 
be  circular,  so  that  the  force  of  the  fire  and  heat  may  spread 
evenly  from  the  centre  all  round  the  circumference. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  PALAESTRA 

1.  Next,  although  the  building  of  palaestrae  is  not  usual  in 
Italy,  I think  it  best  to  set  forth  the  traditional  way,  and  to  show 
how  they  are  constructed  among  the  Greeks.  The  square  or  ob- 


160 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


long  peristyle  in  a palaestra  should  be  so  formed  that  the  circuit 
of  it  makes  a walk  of  two  stadia,  a distance  which  the  Greeks  call 
the  SiavXos.  Let  three  of  its  colonnades*  be  single,  but  let  the 
fourth,  which  is  on  the  south  side,  be  double,  so  that  when  there 
is  bad  weather  accompanied  by  wind,  the  drops  of  rain  may  not 
be  able  to  reach  the  interior. 

2.  In  the  three  colonnades  construct  roomy  recesses  (A)  with 
seats  in  them,  where  philosophers,  rhetoricians,  and  others  who 
delight  in  learning  may  sit  and  converse.  In  the  double  colonnade 
let  the  rooms  be  arranged  thus:  the  young  men’s  hall  (B)  in  the 
middle;  this  is  a very  spacious  recess  (exedra)  with  seats  in  it,  and 
it  should  be  one  third  longer  than  it  is  broad.  At  the  right,  the 
bag  room  (C);  then  next,  the  dust  room  (D);  beyond  the  dust 
room,  at  the  corner  of  the  colonnade,  the  cold  washing  room  (E), 
which  the  Greeks  call  \ovrp6v.  At  the  left  of  the  young  men’s  hall  is 
the  anointing  room  (F) ; then,  next  to  the  anointing  room,  the  cold 
bath  room  (G),  and  beyond  that  a passage  into  the  furnace  room 
(H)  at  the  corner  of  the  colonnade.  Next,  but  inside  and  on  aline 
with  the  cold  bath  room,  put  the  vaulted  sweating  bath  (I),  its 
length  twice  its  breadth,  and  having  at  the  ends  on  one  side  a 
Laconicum  (K),  proportioned  in  the  same  manner  as  above  de- 
scribed, and  opposite  the  Laconicum  the  warm  washing  room  (L). 
Inside  a palaestra,  the  peristyle  ought  to  be  laid  out  as  described 
above. 

3.  But  on  the  outside,  let  three  colonnades  be  arranged,  one 
as  you  leave  the  peristyle  and  two  at  the  right  and  left,  with  run- 
ning-tracks in  them.  That  one  of  them  which  faces  the  north 
should  be  a double  colonnade  of  very  ample  breadth,  while  the 
other  should  be  single,  and  so  constructed  that  on  the  sides  next 
the  walls  and  the  side  along  the  columns  it  may  have  edges, 
serving  as  paths,  of  not  less  than  ten  feet,  with  the  space  between 
them  sunken,  so  that  steps  are  necessary  in  going  down  from  the 
edges  a foot  and  a half  to  the  plane,  which  plane  should  be  not  less 
than  twelve  feet  wide.  Thus  people  walking  round  on  the  edges 
will  not  be  interfered  with  by  the  anointed  who  are  exercising. 


Chap.  XI] 


THE  PALAESTRA 


161 


4.  This  kind  of  colonnade  is  called  among  the  Greeks  fuo-ro?, 
because  athletes  during  the  winter  season  exercise  in  covered 
running  tracks.  Next  to  this  “xystus”  and  to  the  double  colon- 


11 


h THE  PALAESTRA  AT  OLYMPIA 
II.  THE  GREEK  PALAESTRA  ACCORD- 
ING TO  VITRWIVS 


o 

f 


boo  500  *oo  jao 

1 — t 1 1 

SCALE  Of  GREEK  FEET 


nade  should  be  laid  out  the  uncovered  walks  which  the  Greeks 
term  7 TapaSpofjLiSe?  and  our  people  “xysta,”  into  which,  in  fair 
weather  during  the  winter,  the  athletes  come  out  from  the  “xys- 
tus” for  exercise.  The  “xysta”  ought  to  be  so  constructed  that 
there  may  be  plantations  between  the  two  colonnades,  or  groves 


162 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  V 


of  plane  trees,  with  walks  laid  out  in  them  among  the  trees  and 
resting  places  there,  made  of  “opus  signinum.”  Behind  the  “xys- 
tus”  a stadium,  so  designed  that  great  numbers  of  people  may 
have  plenty  of  room  to  look  on  at  the  contests  between  the 
athletes. 

I have  now  described  all  that  seemed  necessary  for  the  proper 
arrangement  of  things  within  the  city  walls. 


CHAPTER  XII 

HARBOURS,  BREAKWATERS,  AND  SHIPYARDS 

1.  The  subject  of  the  usefulness  of  harbours  is  one  which  I 
must  not  omit,  but  must  explain  by  what  means  ships  are  shel- 
tered in  them  from  storms.  If  their  situation  has  natural  advan- 
tages, with  projecting  capes  or  promontories  which  curve  or  return 
inwards  by  their  natural  conformation,  such  harbours  are  ob- 
viously of  the  greatest  service.  Round  them,  of  course,  colon- 
nades or  shipyards  must  be  built,  or  passages  from  the  colon- 
nades to  the  business  quarters,  and  towers  must  be  set  up  on  both 
sides,  from  which  chains  can  be  drawn  across  by  machinery. 

2.  But  if  we  have  a situation  without  natural  advantages,  and 
unfit  to  shelter  ships  from  storms,  it  is  obvious  that  we  must  pro- 
ceed as  follows.  If  there  is  no  river  in  the  neighbourhood,  but 
if  there  can  be  a roadstead  on  one  side,  then,  let  the  advances  be 
made  from  the  other  side  by  means  of  walls  or  embankments, 
and  let  the  enclosing  harbour  be  thus  formed.  Walls  which  are 
to  be  under  water  should  be  constructed  as  follows.  Take  the 
powder  which  comes  from  the  country  extending  from  Cumae 
to  the  promontory  of  Minerva,  and  mix  it  in  the  mortar  trough 
in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one. 

3.  Then,  in  the  place  previously  determined,  a cofferdam,  with 
its  sides  formed  of  oaken  stakes  with  ties  between  them,  is  to  be 
driven  down  into  the  water  and  firmly  propped  there;  then,  the 
lower  surface  inside,  under  the  water,  must  be  levelled  off  and 


Chap.  XII]  HARBOURS  AND  SHIPYARDS 


163 


dredged,  working  from  beams  laid  across;  and  finally,  concrete 
from  the  mortar  trough  — the  stuff  having  been  mixed  as  pre- 
scribed above — must  be  heaped  up  until  the  empty  space  which 
was  within  the  cofferdam  is  filled  up  by  the  wall.  This,  however, 
is  possessed  as  a gift  of  nature  by  such  places  as  have  been  de- 
scribed above. 

But  if  by  reason  of  currents  or  the  assaults  of  the  open  sea  the 
props  cannot  hold  the  cofferdam  together,  then,  let  a platform  of 
the  greatest  possible  strength  be  constructed,  beginning  on  the 
ground  itself  or  on  a substructure;  and  let  the  platform  be  con- 
structed with  a level  surface  for  less  than  half  its  extent,  while  the 
rest,  which  is  close  to  the  beach,  slopes  down  and  out. 

4.  Then,  on  the  water’s  edge  and  at  the  sides  of  the  platform, 
let  marginal  walls  be  constructed,  about  one  and  one  half  feet 
thick  and  brought  up  to  a level  with  the  surface  above  mentioned; 
next,  let  the  sloping  part  be  filled  in  with  sand  and  levelled  off 
with  the  marginal  wall  and  the  surface  of  the  platform.  Then, 
upon  this  level  surface  construct  a block  as  large  as  is  required, 
and  when  it  is  finished,  leave  it  for  not  less  than  two  months 
to  dry.  Then,  cut  away  the  marginal  wall  which  supports  the 
sand.  Thus,  the  sand  will  be  undermined  by  the  waves,  and 
this  will  cause  the  block  to  fall  into  the  sea.  By  this  method, 
repeated  as  often  as  necessary,  an  advance  into  the  water  can  be 
made. 

5.  But  in  places  where  this  powder  is  not  found,  the  following 
method  must  be  employed.  A cofferdam  with  double  sides,  com- 
posed of  charred  stakes  fastened  together  with  ties,  should  be  con- 
structed in  the  appointed  place,  and  clay  in  wicker  baskets  made 
of  swamp  rushes  should  be  packed  in  among  the  props.  After 
this  has  been  well  packed  down  and  filled  in  as  closely  as  possible, 
set  up  your  water-screws,  wheels,  and  drums,  and  let  the  space 
now  bounded  by  the  enclosure  be  emptied  and  dried.  Then,  dig 
out  the  bottom  within  the  enclosure.  If  it  proves  to  be  of  earth, 
it  must  be  cleared  out  and  dried  till  you  come  to  solid  bottom 
and  for  a space  wider  than  the  wall  which  is  to  be  built  upon  it, 


VITRUVIUS 


164 


[Book  V 


and  then  filled  in  with  masonry  consisting  of  rubble,  lime,  and 
sand. 

6.  But  if  the  place  proves  to  be  soft,  the  bottom  must  be 
staked  with  piles  made  of  charred  alder  or  olive  wood,  and  then 
filled  in  with  charcoal  as  has  been  prescribed  in  the  case  of  the 
foundations  of  theatres  and  the  city  wall.  Finally,  build  the 
wall  of  dimension  stone,  with  the  bond  stones  as  long  as  pos- 
sible, so  that  particularly  the  stones  in  the  middle  may  be  held 
together  by  the  joints.  Then,  fill  the  inside  of  the  wall  with  broken 
stone  or  masonry.  It  will  thus  be  possible  for  even  a tower  to 
be  built  upon  it. 

7.  When  all  this  is  finished,  the  general  rule  for  shipyards  will 
be  to  build  them  facing  the  north.  Southern  exposures  from  their 
heat  produce  rot,  the  wood  worm,  ship  worms,  and  all  sorts  of  other 
destructive  creatures,  and  strengthen  and  keep  them  alive.  And 
these  buildings  must  by  no  means  be  constructed  of  wood,  for  fear 
of  fire.  As  for  their  size,  no  definite  limit  need  be  set,  but  they 
must  be  built  to  suit  the  largest  type  of  ship,  so  that  if  even  larger 
ships  are  hauled  up,  they  may  find  plenty  of  room  there. 

I have  described  in  this  book  the  construction  and  completion 
of  all  that  I could  remember  as  necessary  for  general  use  in  the 
public  places  of  cities.  In  the  following  book  I shall  consider 
private  houses,  their  conveniences,  and  symmetrical  proportions. 


BOOK  VI 


BOOK  VI 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  It  is  related  of  the  Socratic  philosopher  Aristippus  that,  be- 
ing shipwrecked  and  cast  ashore  on  the  coast  of  the  Rhodians,  he 
observed  geometrical  figures  drawn  thereon,  and  cried  out  to  his 
companions : “ Let  us  be  of  good  cheer,  for  I seethe  traces  of  man.” 
With  that  he  made  for  the  city  of  Rhodes,  and  went  straight  to 
the  gymnasium.  There  he  fell  to  discussing  philosophical  subjects, 
and  presents  were  bestowed  upon  him,  so  that  he  could  not  only  fit 
himself  out,  but  could  also  provide  those  who  accompanied  him 
with  clothing  and  all  other  necessaries  of  life.  When  his  compan- 
ions wished  to  return  to  their  country,  and  asked  him  what  mes- 
sage he  wished  them  to  carry  home,  he  bade  them  say  this : that 
children  ought  to  be  provided  with  property  and  resources  of 
a kind  that  could  swim  with  them  even  out  of  a shipwreck. 

2.  These  are  indeed  the  true  supports  of  life,  and  neither  For- 
tune’s adverse  gale,  nor  political  revolution,  nor  ravages  of  war 
can  do  them  any  harm.  Developing  the  same  idea,  Theophrastus, 
urging  men  to  acquire  learning  rather  than  to  put  their  trust  in 
money,  states  the  case  thus:  “The  man  of  learning  is  the  only 
person  in  the  world  who  is  neither  a stranger  when  in  a foreign 
land,  nor  friendless  when  he  has  lost  his  intimates  and  relatives; 
on  the  contrary,  he  is  a citizen  of  every  country,  and  can  fearlessly 
look  down  upon  the  troublesome  accidents  of  fortune.  But  he 
who  thinks  himself  entrenched  in  defences  not  of  learning  but  of 
luck,  moves  in  slippery  paths,  struggling  through  life  unsteadily 
and  insecurely.” 

3.  And  Epicurus,  in  much  the  same  way,  says  that  the  wise  owe 
little  to  fortune;  all  that  is  greatest  and  essential  is  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  thinking  power  of  the  mind  and  the  understanding. 
Many  other  philosophers  have  said  the  same  thing.  Likewise  the 


168 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


poets  who  wrote  the  ancient  comedies  in  Greek  have  expressed 
the  same  sentiments  in  their  verses  on  the  stage:  for  example, 
Eucrates,  Chionides,  Aristophanes,  and  with  them  Alexis  in  par- 
ticular, who  says  that  the  Athenians  ought  to  be  praised  for  the 
reason  that,  while  the  laws  of  all  Greeks  require  the  maintenance 
of  parents  by  their  children,  the  laws  of  the  Athenians  require 
this  only  in  the  case  of  those  who  have  educated  their  children  in 
the  arts.  All  the  gifts  which  fortune  bestows  she  can  easily  take 
away;  but  education,  when  combined  with  intelligence,  never 
fails,  but  abides  steadily  on  to  the  very  end  of  life. 

4.  Hence,  I am  very  much  obliged  and  infinitely  grateful  to  my 
parents  for  their  approval  of  this  Athenian  law,  and  for  having 
taken  care  that  I should  be  taught  an  art,  and  that  of  a sort  which 
cannot  be  brought  to  perfection  without  learning  and  a liberal 
education  in  all  branches  of  instruction.  Thanks,  therefore,  to  the 
attention  of  my  parents  and  the  instruction  given  by  my  teachers, 
I obtained  a wide  range  of  knowledge,  and  by  the  pleasure  which 
I take  in  literary  and  artistic  subjects,  and  in  the  writing  of  trea- 
tises, I have  acquired  intellectual  possessions  whose  chief  fruits 
are  these  thoughts : that  superfluity  is  useless,  and  that  not  to  feel 
the  want  of  anything  is  true  riches.  There  may  be  some  people, 
however,  who  deem  all  this  of  no  consequence,  and  think  that  the 
wise  are  those  who  have  plenty  of  money.  Hence  it  is  that  very 
many,  in  pursuit  of  that  end,  take  upon  themselves  impudent 
assurance,  and  attain  notoriety  and  wealth  at  the  same  time. 

5.  But  for  my  part,  Caesar,  I have  never  been  eager  to  make 
money  by  my  art,  but  have  gone  on  the  principle  that  slender 
means  and  a good  reputation  are  preferable  to  wealth  and  disre- 
pute. For  this  reason,  only  a little  celebrity  has  followed;  but  still, 
my  hope  is  that,  with  the  publication  of  these  books,  I shall  become 
known  even  to  posterity.  And  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  I 
am  so  generally  unknown.  Other  architects  go  about  and  ask  for 
opportunities  to  practise  their  profession ; but  I have  been  taught 
by  my  instructors  that  it  is  the  proper  thing  to  undertake  a charge 
only  after  being  asked,  and  not  to  ask  for  it;  since  a gentleman  will 


INTRODUCTION 


169 


blush  with  shame  at  petitioning  for  a thing  that  arouses  suspi- 
cion. It  is  in  fact  those  who  can  grant  favours  that  are  courted, 
not  those  who  receive  them.  What  are  we  to  think  must  be  the 
suspicions  of  a man  who  is  asked  to  allow  his  private  means  to  be 
expended  in  order  to  please  a petitioner?  Must  he  not  believe 
that  the  thing  is  to  be  done  for  the  profit  and  advantage  of  that 
individual? 

6.  Hence  it  was  that  the  ancients  used  to  entrust  their  work  in 
the  first  place  to  architects  of  good  family,  and  next  inquired 
whether  they  had  been  properly  educated,  believing  that  one  ought 
to  trust  in  the  honour  of  a gentleman  rather  than  in  the  assurance 
of  impudence.  And  the  architects  themselves  would  teach  none  but 
their  own  sons  or  kinsmen,  and  trained  them  to  be  good  men,  who 
could  be  trusted  without  hesitation  in  matters  of  such  import- 
ance. 

But  when  I see  that  this  grand  art  is  boldly  professed  by  the 
uneducated  and  the  unskilful,  and  by  men  who,  far  from  being 
acquainted  with  architecture,  have  no  knowledge  even  of  the  car- 
penter’s trade,  I can  find  nothing  but  praise  for  those  householders 
who,  in  the  confidence  of  learning,  are  emboldened  to  build  for 
themselves.  Their  judgment  is  that,  if  they  must  trust  to  inex- 
perienced persons,  it  is  more  becoming  to  them  to  use  up  a good 
round  sum  at  their  own  pleasure  than  at  that  of  a stranger. 

7.  Nobody,  therefore,  attempts  to  practise  any  other  art  in  his 
own  home  — as,  for  instance,  the  shoemaker’s,  or  the  fuller’s,  or 
any  other  of  the  easier  kinds  — but  only  architecture,  and  this  is 
because  the  professionals  do  not  possess  the  genuine  art  but  term 
themselves  architects  falsely.  For  these  reasons  I have  thought 
proper  to  compose  most  carefully  a complete  treatise  on  architec- 
ture and  its  principles,  believing  that  it  will  be  no  unacceptable 
gift  to  all  the  world.  In  the  fifth  book  I have  said  what  I had  to 
say  about  the  convenient  arrangement  of  public  works;  in  this 
I shall  set  forth  the  theoretical  principles  and  the  symmetrical 
proportions  of  private  houses. 


CHAPTER  I 


ON  CLIMATE  AS  DETERMINING  THE  STYLE  OF  THE  HOUSE 

1.  If  our  designs  for  private  houses  are  to  be  correct,  we  must 
at  the  outset  take  note  of  the  countries  and  climates  in  which  they 
are  built.  One  style  of  house  seems  appropriate  to  build  in  Egypt, 
another  in  Spain,  a different  kind  in  Pontus,  one  still  different  in 
Rome,  and  so  on  with  lands  and  countries  of  other  characteristics. 
This  is  because  one  part  of  the  earth  is  directly  under  the  sun’s 
course,  another  is  far  away  from  it,  while  another  lies  midway 
between  these  two.  Hence,  as  the  position  of  the  heaven  with  re- 
gard to  a given  tract  on  the  earth  leads  naturally  to  different 
characteristics,  owing  to  the  inclination  of  the  circle  of  the  zo- 
diac and  the  course  of  the  sun,  it  is  obvious  that  designs  for  houses 
ought  similarly  to  conform  to  the  nature  of  the  country  and  to 
diversities  of  climate. 

2.  In  the  north,  houses  should  be  entirely  roofed  over  and  shel- 
tered as  much  as  possible,  not  in  the  open,  though  having  a warm 
exposure.  But  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  force  of  the  sun  is 
great  in  the  southern  countries  that  suffer  from  heat,  houses 
must  be  built  more  in  the  open  and  with  a northern  or  north- 
eastern exposure.  Thus  we  may  amend  by  art  what  nature,  if  left 
to  herself,  would  mar.  In  other  situations,  also,  we  must  make 
modifications  to  correspond  to  the  position  of  the  heaven  and  its 
effects  on  climate. 

3.  These  effects  are  noticeable  and  discernible  not  only  in 
things  in  nature,  but  they  also  are  observable  in  the  limbs  and 
bodies  of  entire  races.  In  places  on  which  the  sun  throws  out  its 
heat  in  moderation,  it  keeps  human  bodies  in  their  proper  condi- 
tion, and  where  its  path  is  very  close  at  hand,  it  parches  them  up, 
and  burns  out  and  takes  away  the  proportion  of  moisture  which 
they  ought  to  possess.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  cold  re- 


Chap.  I] 


ON  CLIMATE 


171 


gions  that  are  far  away  from  the  south,  the  moisture  is  not  drawn 
out  by  hot  weather,  but  the  atmosphere  is  full  of  dampness  which 
diffuses  moisture  into  the  system,  and  makes  the  frame  larger 
and  the  pitch  of  the  voice  deeper.  This  is  also  the  reason  why 
the  races  that  are  bred  in  the  north  are  of  vast  height,  and  have 
fair  complexions,  straight  red  hair,  grey  eyes,  and  a great  deal 
of  blood,  owing  to  the  abundance  of  moisture  and  the  coolness 
of  the  atmosphere. 

4.  On  the  contrary,  those  that  are  nearest  to  the  southern  half 
of  the  axis,  and  that  lie  directly  under  the  sun’s  course,  are  of 
lower  stature,  with  a swarthy  complexion,  hair  curling,  black 
eyes,  strong  legs,  and  but  little  blood  on  account  of  the  force  of 
the  sun.  Hence,  too,  this  poverty  of  blood  makes  them  over- 
timid  to  stand  up  against  the  sword,  but  great  heat  and  fevers 
they  can  endure  without  timidity,  because  their  frames  are  bred 
up  in  the  raging  heat.  Hence,  men  that  are  born  in  the  north 
are  rendered  over-timid  and  weak  by  fever,  but  their  wealth  of 
blood  enables  them  to  stand  up  against  the  sword  without  timid- 
ity. 

5.  The  pitch  of  the  voice  is  likewise  different  and  varying  in 
quality  with  different  nations,  for  the  following  reasons.  The 
terminating  points  east  and  west  on  the  level  of  the  earth,  where 
the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  heaven  are  divided,  seem  to  lie 
in  a naturally  balanced  circle  which  mathematicians  call  the 
Horizon.  Keeping  this  idea  definitely  in  mind,  if  we  imagine  a 
line  drawn  from  the  northern  side 
of  the  circumference  (N)  to  the 
side  which  lies  above  the  southern 
half  of  the  axis  (S) , and  from  here 
another  line  obliquely  up  to  the 
pivot  at  the  summit,  beyond  the 
stars  composing  the  Great  Bear 
(the  pole  star  P) , we  shall  doubt- 
less see  that  we  have  in  the  heaven  a triangular  figure  like  that 
of  the  musical  instrument  which  the  Greeks  call  the  “sambuca.” 


172 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


6.  And  so,  under  the  space  which  is  nearest  to  the  pivot  at  the 
bottom,  off  the  southern  portions  of  the  line  of  the  axis,  are  found 
nations  that  on  account  of  the  slight  altitude  of  the  heaven  above 
them,  have  shrill  and  very  high-pitched  voices,  like  the  string 
nearest  to  the  angle  in  the  musical  instrument.  Next  in  order 
come  other  nations  as  far  as  the  middle  of  Greece,  with  lower  ele- 
vations of  the  voice;  and  from  this  middle  point  they  go  on  in 
regular  order  up  to  the  extreme  north, where,  under  high  altitudes, 
the  vocal  utterance  of  the  inhabitants  is,  under  natural  laws,  pro- 
duced in  heavier  tones.  Thus  it  is  obvious  that  the  system  of  the 
universe  as  a whole  is,  on  account  of  the  inclination  of  the  hea- 
ven, composed  in  a most  perfect  harmony  through  the  temporary 
power  of  the  sun. 

7.  The  nations,  therefore,  that  lie  midway  between  the  pivots 
at  the  southern  and  the  northern  extremities  of  the  axis,  converse 
in  a voice  of  middle  pitch,  like  the  notes  in  the  middle  of  a musical 
scale;  but,  as  we  proceed  towards  the  north,  the  distances  to]the 
heaven  become  greater,  and  so  the  nations  there,  whose  vocal 
utterance  is  reduced  by  the  moisture  to  the  “liypates”  and  to 
“proslambanomenon,”  are  naturally  obliged  to  speak  in  heavier 
tones.  In  the  same  way,  as  we  proceed  from  the  middle  point 
to  the  south,  the  voices  of  the  nations  there  correspond  in 
extreme  height  of  pitch  and  in  shrillness  to  the  “paranetes”  and 
“netes.” 

8.  That  it  is  a fact  that  things  are  made  heavier  from  being 
in  places  naturally  moist,  and  higher  pitched  from  places  that 
are  hot,  may  be  proved  from  the  following  experiment.  Take  two 
cups  which  have  been  baked  in  the  same  oven  for  an  equal  time, 
which  are  of  equal  weight,  and  which  give  the  same  note  when 
struck.  Dip  one  of  them  into  water  and,  after  taking  it  out  of 
water,  strike  them  both.  This  done,  there  will  be  a great 
difference  in  their  notes,  and  the  cups  can  no  longer  be  equal  in 
weight.  Thus  it  is  with  men:  though  born  in  the  same  general 
form  and  under  the  same  all-embracing  heaven,  yet  in  some  of 
them,  on  account  of  the  heat  in  their  country,  the  voice  strikes 


Chap.  I]  ON  CLIMATE  173 

the  air  on  a high  note,  while  in  others,  on  account  of  abundance 
of  moisture,  the  quality  of  tones  produced  is  very  heavy. 

9.  Further,  it  is  owing  to  the  rarity  of  the  atmosphere  that 
southern  nations,  with  their  keen  intelligence  due  to  the  heat, 
are  very  free  and  swift  in  the  devising  of  schemes,  while  northern 
nations,  being  enveloped  in  a dense  atmosphere,  and  chilled  by 
moisture  from  the  obstructing  air,  have  but  a sluggish  intelligence. 
That  this  is  so,  we  may  see  from  the  case  of  snakes.  Their  move- 
ments are  most  active  in  hot  weather,  when  they  have  got  rid 
of  the  chill  due  to  moisture,  whereas  at  the  winter  solstice,  and  in 
winter  weather,  they  are  chilled  by  the  change  of  temperature,  and 
rendered  torpid  and  motionless.  It  is  therefore  no  wonder  that 
man’s  intelligence  is  made  keener  by  warm  air  and  duller  by 
cold. 

10.  But  although  southern  nations  have  the  keenest  wits,  and 
are  infinitely  clever  in  forming  schemes,  yet  the  moment  it  comes 
to  displaying  valour,  they  succumb  because  all  manliness  of  spirit 
is  sucked  out  of  them  by  the  sun.  On  the  other  hand,  men  born 
in  cold  countries  are  indeed  readier  to  meet  the  shock  of  arms 
with  great  courage  and  without  timidity,  but  their  wits  are  so 
slow  that  they  will  rush  to  the  charge  inconsiderately  and  inex- 
pertly, thus  defeating  their  own  devices.  Such  being  nature’s  ar- 
rangement of  the  universe,  and  all  these  nations  being  allotted 
temperaments  which  are  lacking  in  due  moderation,  the  truly 
perfect  territory,  situated  under  the  middle  of  the  heaven,  and 
having  on  each  side  the  entire  extent  of  the  world  and  its  coun- 
tries, is  that  which  is  occupied  by  the  Roman  people. 

11.  In  fact,  the  races  of  Italy  are  the  most  perfectly  consti- 
tuted in  both  respects  — in  bodily  form  and  in  mental  activity 
to  correspond  to  their  valour.  Exactly  as  the  planet  Jupiter  is 
itself  temperate,  its  course  lying  midway  between  Mars,  which  is 
very  hot,  and  Saturn,  which  is  very  cold,  so  Italy,  lying  between 
the  north  and  the  south,  is  a combination  of  what  is  found  on 
each  side,  and  her  preeminence  is  well  regulated  and  indisputable. 
And  so  by  her  wisdom  she  breaks  the  courageous  onsets  of  the 


174 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


barbarians,  and  by  her  strength  of  hand  thwarts  the  devices  of 
the  southerners.  Hence,  it  was  the  divine  intelligence  that  set 
the  city  of  the  Roman  people  in  a peerless  and  temperate  coun- 
try, in  order  that  it  might  acquire  the  right  to  command  the 
whole  world. 

12.  Now  if  it  is  a fact  that  countries  differ  from  one  another, 
and  are  of  various  classes  according  to  climate,  so  that  the  very 
nations  born  therein  naturally  differ  in  mental  and  physical  con- 
formation and  qualities,  we  cannot  hesitate  to  make  our  houses 
suitable  in  plan  to  the  peculiarities  of  nations  and  races,  since 
we  have  the  expert  guidance  of  nature  herself  ready  to  our 
hand. 

I have  now  set  forth  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  localities,  so 
far  as  I could  note  them,  in  the  most  summary  way,  and  have 
stated  how  we  ought  to  make  our  houses  conform  to  the  physical 
qualities  of  nations,  with  due  regard  to  the  course  of  the  sun  and 
to  climate.  Next  I shall  treat  the  symmetrical  proportions  of  the 
different  styles  of  houses,  both  as  wholes  and  in  their  separate 
parts. 


CHAPTER  II 

SYMMETRY,  AND  MODIFICATIONS  IN  IT  TO  SUIT  THE  SITE 

1.  There  is  nothing  to  which  an  architect  should  devote  more 
thought  than  to  the  exact  proportions  of  his  building  with  refer- 
ence to  a certain  part  selected  as  the  standard.  After  the  stand- 
ard of  symmetry  has  been  determined,  and  the  proportionate  di- 
mensions adjusted  by  calculations,  it  is  next  the  part  of  wisdom 
to  consider  the  nature  of  the  site,  or  questions  of  use  or  beauty, 
and  modify  the  plan  by  diminutions  or  additions  in  such  a man- 
ner that  these  diminutions  or  additions  in  the  symmetrical  rela- 
tions may  be  seen  to  be  made  on  correct  principles,  and  without 
detracting  at  all  from  the  effect. 

2.  The  look  of  a building  when  seen  close  at  hand  is  one  thing, 
on  a height  it  is  another,  not  the  same  in  an  enclosed  place,  still 


Chap.  II] 


SYMMETRY 


175 


different  in  the  open,  and  in  all  these  cases  it  takes  much  judg- 
ment to  decide  what  is  to  be  done.  The  fact  is  that  the  eye  does 
not  always  give  a true  impression,  but  very  often  leads  the  mind 
to  form  a false  judgment.  In  painted  scenery,  for  example,  col- 
umns may  appear  to  jut  out,  mutules  to  project,  and  statues  to  be 
standing  in  the  foreground,  although  the  picture  is  of  course  per- 
fectly flat.  Similarly  with  ships,  the  oars  when  under  the  water 
are  straight,  though  to  the  eye  they  appear  to  be  broken.  To  the 
point  where  they  touch  the  surface  of  the  sea  they  look  straight, 
as  indeed  they  are,  but  when  dipped  under  the  water  they  emit 
from  their  bodies  undulating  images  which  come  swimming  up 
through  the  naturally  transparent  medium  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and,  being  there  thrown  into  commotion,  make  the  oars 
look  broken. 

3.  Now  whether  this  appearance  is  due  to  the  impact  of  the 
images,  or  to  the  effusion  of  the  rays  from  the  eye,  as  the  physicists 
hold,  in  either  case  it  is  obvious  that  the  vision  may  lead  us  to 
false  impressions. 

4.  Since,  therefore,  the  reality  may  have  a false  appearance, 
and  since  things  are  sometimes  represented  by  the  eyes  as  other 
than  they  are,  I think  it  certain  that  diminutions  or  additions 
should  be  made  to  suit  the  nature  or  needs  of  the  site,  but  in  such 
fashion  that  the  buildings  lose  nothing  thereby.  These  results, 
however,  are  also  attainable  by  flashes  of  genius,  and  not  only 
by  mere  science. 

5.  Hence,  the  first  thing  to  settle  is  the  standard  of  symmetry, 
from  which  we  need  not  hesitate  to  vary.  Then,  lay  out  the 
ground  lines  of  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  work  proposed, 
and  when  once  we  have  determined  its  size,  let  the  construction 
follow  this  with  due  regard  to  beauty  of  proportion,  so  that  the 
beholder  may  feel  no  doubt  of  the  eurythmy  of  its  effect.  I must 
now  tell  how  this  may  be  brought  about,  and  first  I will  speak 
of  the  proper  construction  of  a cavaedium. 


176 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


CHAPTER  III 

PROPORTIONS  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  ROOMS 

1.  There  are  five  different  styles  of  cavaedium,  termed  accord- 
ing to  their  construction  as  follows:  Tuscan,  Corinthian,  tetra- 
style,  displuviate,  and  testudinate. 

In  the  Tuscan,  the  girders  that  cross  the  breadth  of  the  atrium 
have  crossbeams  on  them,  and  valleys  sloping  in  and  running 
from  the  angles  of  the  walls  to  the  angles  formed  by  the  beams, 
and  the  rainwater  falls  down  along  the  rafters  to  the  roof-opening 
(compluvium)  in  the  middle. 

In  the  Corinthian,  the  girders  and  roof -opening  are  constructed 
on  these  same  principles,  but  the  girders  run  in  from  the  side 
walls,  and  are  supported  all  round  on  columns. 

In  the  tetrastyle,  the  girders  are  supported  at  the  angles  by 
columns,  an  arrangement  which  relieves  and  strengthens  the 
girders;  for  thus  they  have  themselves  no  great  span  to  support, 
and  they  are  not  loaded  down  by  the  crossbeams. 


From  Mau 


THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  SURGEON, 
POMPEII 

Illustrating  the  Tuscan  Atrium 

1.  Fauces  13.  Kitchen,  a,  hearth 

2,  3.  Shops  14.  Rear  Entrance 

4.  Storage  16.  Portico 

5.  Atrium  18.  Stairs  to  rooms 

6.  Chambers  over  the  rear  of 

7.  Tablinum  the  house 

8.  Alae  20.  Garden 

9,  10.  Dining  Rooms 


HOUSE  OF  EPIDIUS  RUFUS 
AT  POMPEII 

Illustrating  Corinthian  Atrium 


Chap.  Ill] 


PROPORTIONS  OF  ROOMS 


177 


2.  In  the  displuviate,  there  are  beams  which  slope  outwards, 
supporting  the  roof  and  throwing  the  rainwater  off.  This  style 
is  suitable  chiefly  in  winter  resi- 
dences, for  its  roof-opening,  be- 
ing high  up,  is  not  an  obstruc- 
tion to  the  light  of  the  dining 
rooms.  it  is,  however,  very 
troublesome  to  keep  in  repair, 
because  the  pipes,  which  are  in- 
tended to  hold  the  water  that 
comes  dripping  down  the  walls 
all  round,  cannot  take  it  quickly 
enough  as  it  runs  down  from 
the  channels,  but  get  too  full 
and  run  over,  thus  spoiling  the 
woodwork  and  the  walls  of 
houses  of  this  style. 

The  testudinate  is  employed 
where  the  span  is  not  great, 
and  where  large  rooms  are  pro- 
vided in  upper  stories. 

3.  In  width  and  length,  atri- 
ums are  designed  according  to  three  classes.  The  first  is  laid  out 
by  dividing  the  length  into  five  parts  and  giving  three  parts  to 
the  width;  the  second,  by  dividing  it  into  three  parts  and  assign- 
ing two  parts  to  the  width;  the  third,  by  using  the  width  to 
describe  a square  figure  with  equal  sides,  drawing  a diagonal 
line  in  this  square,  and  giving  the  atrium  the  length  of  this 
diagonal  line. 

4.  Their  height  up  to  the  girders  should  be  one  fourth  less  than 
their  width,  the  rest  being  the  proportion  assigned  to  the  ceiling 
and  the  roof  above  the  girders. 

The  alae,  to  the  right  and  left,  should  have  a width  equal  to 
one  third  of  the  length  of  the  atrium,  when  that  is  from  thirty 
to  forty  feet  long.  From  forty  to  fifty  feet,  divide  the  length  by 


HOUSE  OF  THE  SILVER  WEDDING 
AT  POMPEII 

Illustrating  the  Tetrastyle  Atrium 


a.  fauces 

d.  tetrastyle  atrium 

n.  dining  room 

o.  tablinum 


p.  audron 
r.  peristyle 
w.  summer  dining 
room 


178 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


three  and  one  half,  and  give  the  alae  the  result.  When  it  is  from 
fifty  to  sixty  feet  in  length,  devote  one  fourth  of  the  length  to  the 
alae.  From  sixty  to  eighty  feet,  divide  the  length  by  four  and 
one  half  and  let  the  result  be  the  width  of  the  alae.  From  eighty 
feet  to  one  hundred  feet,  the  length  divided  into  five  parts  will 
produce  the  right  width  for  the  alae.  Their  lintel  beams  should 
be  placed  high  enough  to  make  the  height  of  the  alae  equal  to 
their  width. 

5.  The  tablinum  should  be  given  two  thirds  of  the  width  of  the 
atrium  when  the  latter  is  twenty  feet  wide.  If  it  is  from  thirty  to 
forty  feet,  let  half  the  width  of  the  atrium  be  devoted  to  the 
tablinum.  When  it  is  from  forty  to  sixty  feet,  divide  the  width 
into  five  parts  and  let  two  of  these  be  set  apart  for  the  tablinum. 
In  the  case  of  smaller  atriums,  the  symmetrical  proportions 
cannot  be  the  same  as  in  larger.  For  if,  in  the  case  of  the  smaller, 
we  employ  the  proportion  that  belong  to  the  larger,  both  tablina 
and  alae  must  be  unserviceable,  while  if,  in  the 
case  of  the  larger,  we  employ  the  proportions  of 
the  smaller,  the  rooms  mentioned  will  be  huge 
monstrosities.  Hence,  I have  thought  it  best  to 
describe  exactly  their  respective  proportionate 
sizes,  with  a view  both  to  convenience  and  to 
beauty. 

6.  The  height  of  the  tablinum  at  the  lintel 
should  be  one  eighth  more  than  its  width.  Its 
ceiling  should  exceed  this  height  by  one  third 
of  the  width.  The  fauces  in  the  case  of  smaller 
atriums  should  be  two  thirds,  and  in  the  case  of 
larger  one  half  the  width  of  the  tablinum.  Let 
the  busts  of  ancestors  with  their  ornaments 
be  set  up  at  a height  corresponding  to  the  width  of  the  alae. 
The  proportionate  width  and  height  of  doors  may  be  settled,  if 
they  are  Doric,  in  the  Doric  manner,  and  if  Ionic,  in  the  Ionic 
manner,  according  to  the  rules  of  symmetry  which  have  been 
given  about  portals  in  the  fourth  book.  In  the  roof-opening  let 


PLAN  OF  A TYPI- 
CAL ROMAN 
HOUSE 


THE  PERISTYLE  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  YETTII  AT  POMPEII 


Chap.  HE] 


PROPORTIONS  OF  ROOMS 


179 


an  aperture  be  left  with  a breadth  of  not  less  than  one  fourth  nor 
more  than  one  third  the  width  of  the  atrium,  and  with  a length 
proportionate  to  that  of  the  atrium. 

7.  Peristyles,  lying  athwart,  should  be  one  third  longer  than 
they  are  deep,  and  their  columns  as  high  as  the  colonnades 
are  wide.  Intercolumniations  of 
peristyles  should  be  not  less 
than  three  nor  more  than  four 
times  the  thickness  of  the  col- 
umns. If  the  columns  of  the 
peristyle  are  to  be  made  in  the 
Doric  style,  take  the  modules 
which  I have  given  in  the 
fourth  book,  on  the  Doric  order, 
and  arrange  the  columns  with 
reference  to  these  modules  and 
to  the  scheme  of  the  triglyphs. 

8.  Dining  rooms  ought  to  be  twice  as  long  as  they  are  wide. 
The  height  of  all  oblong  rooms  should  be  calculated  by  adding 
together  their  measured  length  and  width,  taking  one  half  of  this 
total,  and  using  the  result  for  the  height.  But  in  the  case  of  exedrae 
or  square  oeci,  let  the  height  be  brought  up  to  one  and  one  half 
times  the  width.  Picture  galleries,  like  exedrae,  should  be  con- 
structed of  generous  dimensions.  Corinthian  and  tetrastyle  oeci, 
as  well  as  those  termed  Egyptian,  should  have  the  same  symmetri- 
cal proportions  in  width  and  length  as  the  dining  rooms  described 
above,  but,  since  they  have  columns  in  them,  their  dimensions 
should  be  ampler. 

9.  The  following  will  be  the  distinction  between  Corinthian 
and  Egyptian  oeci:  the  Corinthian  have  single  tiers  of  columns, 
set  either  on  a podium  or  on  the  ground,  with  architraves  over 
them  and  coronae  either  of  woodwork  or  of  stucco,  and  carved 
vaulted  ceilings  above  the  coronae.  In  the  Egyptian  there  are 
architraves  over  the  columns,  and  joists  laid  thereon  from  the 
architraves  to  the  surrounding  walls,  with  a floor  in  the  upper 


PLAN  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  VETTII, 
POMPEII 


180 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


story  to  allow  of  walking  round  under  the  open  sky.  Then,  above 
the  architrave  and  perpendicularly  over  the  lower  tier  of  columns, 
columns  one  fourth  smaller  should  be  imposed.  Above  their  archi- 
traves and  ornaments  are  decorated  ceilings,  and  the  upper 
columns  have  windows  set  in  between  them.  Thus  the  Egyptian 
are  not  like  Corinthian  dining  rooms,  but  obviously  resemble 
basilicas. 

10.  There  are  also,  though  not  customary  in  Italy,  the  oeci 
which  the  Greeks  call  Cyzicene.  These  are  built  with  a northern 
exposure  and  generally  command  a view  of  gardens,  and  have 
folding  doors  in  the  middle.  They  are  also  so  long  and  so  wide 
that  two  sets  of  dining  couches,  facing  each  other,  with  room 
to  pass  round  them,  can  be  placed  therein.  On  the  right  and  left 
they  have  windows  which  open  like  folding  doors,  so  that  views 
of  the  garden  may  be  had  from  the  dining  couches  through  the 
opened  windows.  The  height  of  such  rooms  is  one  and  one  half 
times  their  width. 

11.  All  the  above-mentioned  symmetrical  relations  should  be 
observed,  in  these  kinds  of  buildings,  that  can  be  observed  without 
embarrassment  caused  by  the  situation.  The  windows  will  be  an 
easy  matter  to  arrange  if  they  are  not  darkened  by  high  walls; 
but  in  cases  of  confined  space,  or  when  there  are  other  unavoidable 
obstructions,  it  will  be  permissible  to  make  diminutions  or  addi- 
tions in  the  symmetrical  relations,  — with  ingenuity  and  acute- 
ness, however,  so  that  the  result  may  be  not  unlike  the  beauty 
which  is  due  to  true  symmetry. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  PROPER  EXPOSURES  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  ROOMS 

1.  We  shall  next  explain  how  the  special  purposes  of  different 
rooms  require  different  exposures,  suited  to  convenience  and  to 
the  quarters  of  the  sky.  Winter  dining  rooms  and  bathrooms 
should  have  a southwestern  exposure,  for  the  reason  that  they 


Chap.  V] 


ADAPTATION  OP  ROOMS 


181 


need  the  evening  light,  and  also  because  the  setting  sun,  facing 
them  in  all  its  splendour  but  with  abated  heat,  lends  a gentler 
warmth  to  that  quarter  in  the  evening.  Bedrooms  and  libraries 
ought  to  have  an  eastern  exposure,  because  their  purposes  re- 
quire the  morning  light,  and  also  because  books  in  such  libraries 
will  not  decay.  In  libraries  with  southern  exposures  the  books 
are  ruined  by  worms  and  dampness,  because  damp  winds  come 
up,  which  breed  and  nourish  the  worms,  and  destroy  the  books 
with  mould,  by  spreading  their  damp  breath  over  them. 

2.  Dining  rooms  for  Spring  and  Autumn  to  the  east;  for  when 
the  windows  face  that  quarter,  the  sun,  as  he  goes  on  his  career 
from  over  against  them  to  the  west,  leaves  such  rooms  at  the 
proper  temperature  at  the  time  when  it  is  customary  to  use  them. 
Summer  dining  rooms  to  the  north,  because  that  quarter  is  not, 
like  the  others,  burning  with  heat  during  the  solstice,  for  the  rea- 
son that  it  is  unexposed  to  the  sun’s  course,  and  hence  it  always 
keeps  cool,  and  makes  the  use  of  the  rooms  both  healthy  and  agree- 
able. Similarly  with  picture  galleries,  embroiderers’  work  rooms, 
and  painters’  studios,  in  order  that  the  fixed  light  may  permit 
the  colours  used  in  their  work  to  last  with  qualities  unchanged. 


CHAPTER  V 

HOW  THE  ROOMS  SHOULD  BE  SUITED  TO  THE  STATION  OF 

THE  OWNER 

1.  After  settling  the  positions  of  the  rooms  with  regard  to  the 
quarters  of  the  sky,  we  must  next  consider  the  principles  on 
which  should  be  constructed  those  apartments  in  private  houses 
which  are  meant  for  the  householders  themselves,  and  those  which 
are  to  be  shared  in  common  with  outsiders.  The  private  rooms  are 
those  into  which  nobody  has  the  right  to  enter  without  an  invita- 
tion, such  as  bedrooms,  dining  rooms,  bathrooms,  and  all  others 
used  for  the  like  purposes.  The  common  are  those  which  any  of 
the  people  have  a perfect  right  to  enter,  even  without  an  invita- 


182 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


tion : that  is,  entrance  courts,  cavaedia,  peristyles,  and  all  intended 
for  the  like  purpose.  Hence,  men  of  everyday  fortune  do  not  need 
entrance  courts,  tablina,  or  atriums  built  in  grand  style,  because 
such  men  are  more  apt  to  discharge  their  social  obligations  by 
going  round  to  others  than  to  have  others  come  to  them. 

2.  Those  who  do  business  in  country  produce  must  have  stalls 
and  shops  in  their  entrance  courts,  with  crypts,  granaries,  store- 
rooms, and  so  forth  in  their  houses,  constructed  more  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  the  produce  in  good  condition  than  for  ornamental 
beauty. 

For  capitalists  and  farmers  of  the  revenue,  somewhat  comfort- 
able and  showy  apartments  must  be  constructed,  secure  against 
robbery;  for  advocates  and  public  speakers,  handsomer  and 
more  roomy,  to  accommodate  meetings;  for  men  of  rank  who, 
from  holding  offices  and  magistracies,  have  social  obligations  to 
their  fellow-citizens,  lofty  entrance  courts  in  regal  style,  and 
most  spacious  atriums  and  peristyles,  with  plantations  and 
walks  of  some  extent  in  them,  appropriate  to  their  dignity. 
They  need  also  libraries,  picture  galleries,  and  basilicas,  finished 
in  a style  similar  to  that  of  great  public  buildings,  since  public 
councils  as  well  as  private  law  suits  and  hearings  before  arbi- 
trators are  very  often  held  in  the  houses  of  such  men. 

3.  If,  therefore,  houses  are  planned  on  these  principles  to  suit 
different  classes  of  persons,  as  prescribed  in  my  first  book,  under 
the  subject  of  Propriety,  there  will  be  no  room  for  criticism;  for 
they  will  be  arranged  with  convenience  and  perfection  to  suit 
every  purpose.  The  rules  on  these  points  will  hold  not  only  for 
houses  in  town,  but  also  for  those  in  the  country,  except  that  in 
town  atriums  are  usually  next  to  the  front  door,  while  in  country 
seats  peristyles  come  first,  and  then  atriums  surrounded  by  paved 
colonnades  opening  upon  palaestrae  and  walks. 

I have  now  set  forth  the  rules  for  houses  in  town  so  far  as  I 
could  describe  them  in  a summary  way.  Next  I shall  state  how 
farmhouses  may  be  arranged  with  a view  to  convenience  in  use, 
and  shall  give  the  rules  for  their  construction. 


Chap.  VI] 


THE  FARMHOUSE 


183 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  FARMHOUSE 

1.  In  the  first  place,  inspect  the  country  from  the  point  of 
view  of  health,  in  accordance  with  what  is  written  in  my  first 
book,  on  the  building  of  cities,  and  let  your  farmhouses  be  situ- 
ated accordingly.  Their  dimensions  should  depend  upon  the  size 
of  the  farm  and  the  amount  of  produce.  Their  courtyards  and  the 
dimensions  thereof  should  be  determined  by  the  number  of  cattle 


and  the  number  of  yokes  of  oxen 
that  will  need  to  be  kept  therein. 
Let  the  kitchen  be  placed  on  the 
warmest  side  of  the  courtyard, 
with  the  stalls  for  the  oxen  ad- 
joining, and  their  cribs  facing 
the  kitchen  fire  and  the  eastern 
quarter  of  the  sky,  for  the  rea- 
son that  oxen  facing  the  light 
and  the  fire  do  not  get  rough- 
coated.  Even  peasants  wholly 
without  knowledge  of  the  quar- 
ters of  the  sky  believe  that  oxen 
ought  to  face  only  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  sunrise. 

2.  Their  stalls  ought  to  be  not 
less  than  ten  nor  more  than  fif- 
teen feet  wide,  and  long  enough 
to  allow  not  less  than  seven  feet 
for  each  yoke.  Bathrooms,  also, 
should  adjoin  the  kitchen;  for  in 
this  situation  it  will  not  take 
long  to  get  ready  a bath  in  the 
country. 

Let  the  pressing  room,  also, 


THE  VILLA  RUSTICA  AT  BOSCOREALE 
NEAR  POMPEII 

A.  Court.  B.  Kitchen.  C-F.  Baths.  H.  Sta- 
ble. J.  Toolroom.  K , L,  V,  V.  Bedrooms. 
N.  Dining  Room.  M.  Anteroom.  O.  Bakery. 
P.  Room  with  two  winepresses.  Q.  Corridor. 
R.  Court  for  fermentation  of  wine.  S.  Barn. 
T.  Threshing-floor.  Y.  Room  with  oil  press. 


184 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


be  next  to  the  kitchen;  for  in  this  situation  it  will  be  easy  to  deal 
with  the  fruit  of  the  olive.  Adjoining  it  should  be  the  wine  room 
with  its  windows  lighted  from  the  north.  In  a room  with  win- 
dows on  any  other  quarter  so  that  the  sun  can  heat  it,  the  heat 
will  get  into  the  wine  and  make  it  weak. 

3.  The  oil  room  must  be  situated  so  as  to  get  its  light  from  the 
south  and  from  warm  quarters;  for  oil  ought  not  to  be  chilled,  but 
should  be  kept  thin  by  gentle  heat.  In  dimensions,  oil  rooms 
should  be  built  to  accommodate  the  crop  and  the  proper  num- 
ber of  jars,  each  of  which,  holding  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
gallons,  must  take  up  a space  four  feet  in  diameter.  The  pressing 
room  itself,  if  the  pressure  is  exerted  by  means  of  levers  and  a 
beam,  and  not  worked  by  turning  screws,  should  be  not  less  than 
forty  feet  long,  which  will  give  the  lever  man  a convenient  amount 
of  space.  It  should  be  not  less  than  sixteen  feet  wide,  which  will 
give  the  men  who  are  at  work  plenty  of  free  space  to  do  the  turn- 
ing conveniently.  If  two  presses  are  required  in  the  place,  allow 
twenty -four  feet  for  the  width. 

4.  Folds  for  sheep  and  goats  must  be  made  large  enough  to 
allow  each  animal  a space  of  not  less  than  four  and  a half,  nor 
more  than  six  feet.  Rooms  for  grain  should  be  set  in  an  elevated 
position  and  with  a northern  or  north-eastern  exposure.  Thus 
the  grain  will  not  be  able  to  heat  quickly,  but,  being  cooled  by  the 
wind,  keeps  a long  time.  Other  exposures  produce  the  corn  weevil 
and  the  other  little  creatures  that  are  wont  to  spoil  the  grain. 
To  the  stable  should  be  assigned  the  very  warmest  place  in  the 
farmhouse,  provided  that  it  is  not  exposed  to  the  kitchen  fire; 
for  when  draught  animals  are  stabled  very  near  a fire,  their  coats 
get  rough. 

5.  Furthermore,  there  are  advantages  in  building  cribs  apart 
from  the  kitchen  and  in  the  open,  facing  the  east;  for  when  the 
oxen  are  taken  over  to  them  on  early  winter  mornings  in  clear 
weather,  their  coats  get  sleeker  as  they  take  their  fodder  in  the 
sunlight.  Barns  for  grain,  hay,  and  spelt,  as  well  as  bakeries, 
should  be  built  apart  from  the  farmhouse,  so  that  farmhouses 


Chap.  VII] 


THE  GREEK  HOUSE 


185 


may  be  better  protected  against  danger  from  fire.  If  something 
more  refined  is  required  in  farmhouses,  they  may  be  constructed 
on  the  principles  of  symmetry  which  have  been  given  above  in 
the  case  of  town  houses,  provided  that  there  is  nothing  in  such 
buildings  to  interfere  with  their  usefulness  on  a farm. 

6.  We  must  take  care  that  all  buildings  are  well  lighted,  but 
this  is  obviously  an  easier  matter  with  those  which  are  on  country 
estates,  because  there  can  be  no  neighbour’s  wall  to  interfere, 
whereas  in  town  high  party  walls  or  limited  space  obstruct  the 
light  and  make  them  dark.  Hence  we  must  apply  the  following 
test  in  this  matter.  On  the  side  from  which  the  light  should  be 
obtained  let  a line  be  stretched  from  the  top  of  the  wall  that  seems 
to  obstruct  the  light  to  the  point  at  which  it  ought  to  be  intro- 
duced, and  if  a considerable  space  of  open  sky  can  be  seen  when 
one  looks  up  above  that  line,  there  will  be  no  obstruction  to  the 
light  in  that  situation. 

7.  But  if  there  are  timbers  in  the  way,  or  lintels,  or  upper  stories, 
then,  make  the  opening  higher  up  and  introduce  the  light  in  this 
way.  And  as  a general  rule,  we  must  arrange  so  as  to  leave  places 
for  windows  on  all  sides  on  which  a clear  view  of  the  sky  can  be  had, 
for  this  will  make  our  buildings  light.  Not  only  in  dining  rooms 
and  other  rooms  for  general  use  are  windows  very  necessary,  but 
also  in  passages,  level  or  inclined,  and  on  stairs  ; for  people  carrying 
burdens  too  often  meet  and  run  against  each  other  in  such  places. 

I have  now  set  forth  the  plans  used  for  buildings  in  our  native 
country  so  that  they  may  be  clear  to  builders.  Next,  I shall 
describe  summarily  how  houses  are  planned  in  the  Greek  fashion, 
so  that  these  also  may  be  understood. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  GREEK  HOUSE 


1.  The  Greeks,  having  no  use  for  atriums,  do  not  build  them, 
but  make  passage-ways  for  people  entering  from  the  front  door, 


186 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


not  very  wide,  with  stables  on  one  side  and  doorkeepers’  rooms  on 
the  other,  and  shut  off  by  doors  at  the  inner  end.  This  place  be- 
tween the  two  doors  is  termed  in  Greek  Ovpcopelov.  From  it  one 
enters  the  peristyle.  This  peristyle  has  colonnades  on  three  sides, 

and  on  the  side  facing  the  south 
it  has  two  antae,  a considerable 
distance  apart,  carrying  an  archi- 
trave, with  a recess  for  a distance 
one  third  less  than  the  space  be- 
tween the  antae.  This  space  is 
called  by  some  writers  “prostas,” 
by  others  “pastas.” 

2.  Hereabouts,  towards  the  in- 
ner side,  are  the  large  rooms  in 
which  mistresses  of  houses  sit  with 
their  wool-spinners.  To  the  right 
and  left  of  the  prostas  there  are 
chambers,  one  of  which  is  called 
the  “thalamos,”  the  other  the 
“amphithalamos.”  All  round  the 
colonnades  are  dining  rooms  for 
everyday  use,  chambers,  and 
rooms  for  the  slaves.  This  part 
of  the  house  is  termed  “gynae- 
conitis.” 

3.  In  connexion  with  these  there  are  ampler  sets  of  apartments 
with  more  sumptuous  peristyles,  surrounded  by  four  colonnades 
of  equal  height,  or  else  the  one  which  faces  the  south  has  higher 
columns  than  the  others.  A peristyle  that  has  one  such  higher 
colonnade  is  called  a Rhodian  peristyle.  Such  apartments  have 
fine  entrance  courts  with  imposing  front  doors  of  their  own;  the 
colonnades  of  the  peristyles  are  decorated  with  polished  stucco 
in  relief  and  plain,  and  with  coffered  ceilings  of  woodwork;  off 
the  colonnades  that  face  the  north  they  have  Cyzicene  dining 
rooms  and  picture  galleries;  to  the  east,  libraries;  exedrae  to  the 


PLAN  OF  VITRUVIUS’  GREEK 
HOUSE  ACCORDING  TO  BECKER 


Chap.  VII] 


THE  GREEK  HOUSE 


187 


west;  and  to  the  south,  large  square  rooms  of  such  generous  di- 
mensions that  four  sets  of  dining  couches  can  easily  be  arranged 
in  them,  with  plenty  of  room  for  serving  and  for  the  amusements. 

4.  Men’s  dinner  parties  are  held  in  these  large  rooms;  for  it 
was  not  the  practice,  according  to  Greek  custom,  for  the  mistress 
of  the  house  to  be  present.  On  the  contrary,  such  peristyles  are 
called  the  men’s  apartments,  since  in  them  the  men  can  stay 
without  interruption  from  the  women.  Furthermore,  small  sets 
of  apartments  are  built  to  the  right  and  left,  with  front  doors  of 
their  own  and  suitable  dining  rooms  and  chambers,  so  that 
guests  from  abroad  need  not  be  shown  into  the  peristyles,  but 
rather  into  such  guests’  apartments.  For  when  the  Greeks  be- 
came more  luxurious,  and  their  circumstances  more  opulent, 
they  began  to  provide  dining  rooms, 

chambers,  and  store-rooms  of  provi- 
sions for  their  guests  from  abroad,  and 
on  the  first  day  they  would  invite 
them  to  dinner,  sending  them  on  the 
next  chickens,  eggs,  vegetables,  fruits, 
and  other  country  produce.  This  is 
why  artists  called  pictures  represent- 
ing the  things  which  were  sent  to 
guests  “xenia.”  Thus,  too,  the  heads 
of  families,  while  being  entertained 
abroad,  had  the  feeling  that  they  were 
not  away  from  home,  since  they  en- 
joyed privacy  and  freedom  in  such 
guests’  apartments. 

5.  Between  the  two  peristyles  and 
the  guests’  apartments  are  the  pass- 
age-ways called  “mesauloe,”  because 

they  are  situated  midway  between  two  courts;  but  our  people 
called  them  “andrones.” 

This,  however,  is  a very  strange  fact,  for  the  term  does  not  fit 
either  the  Greek  or  the  Latin  use  of  it.  The  Greeks  call  the  large 


From  Bull.  de.  Corr.  Hell.  1895 
GREEK  HOUSE  AT  DELOS 


188 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


rooms  in  which  men’s  dinner  parties  are  usually  held  avSp&ves, 
because  women  do  not  go  there.  There  are  other  similar  instances 
as  in  the  case  of  “xystus,”  “prothyrum,”  “ telamones,”  and  some 
others  of  the  sort.  As  a Greek  term,  fuo-To?  means  a colonnade 
of  large  dimensions  in  which  athletes  exercise  in  the  winter  time. 
But  our  people  apply  the  term  “xysta”  to  uncovered  walks, 


10  5 10  15  20  25  M, 


From,  Mitt.  d.  Deutsch.  Arch.  In»t. 

GREEK  HOUSE  DISCOVERED  AT  PERGAMUM  IN  1903 
13.  Prothyron.  7.  Tablinum. 

which  the  Greeks  call  7 rapaS pop,  ties.  Again,  7 rpoOvpa  means  in 
Greek  the  entrance  courts  before  the  front  doors;  we,  however, 
use  the  term  “prothyra”  in  the  sense  of  the  Greek  hiaSvpa. 

6.  Again,  figures  in  the  form  of  men  supporting  mutules  or 
coronae,  we  term  “telamones”  — the  reasons  why  or  wherefore 
they  are  so  called  are  not  found  in  any  story  — but  the  Greeks 
name  them  aT\avTe$.  For  Atlas  is  described  in  story  as  holding 
up  the  firmament  because,  through  his  vigorous  intelligence  and 
ingenuity,  he  was  the  first  to  cause  men  to  be  taught  about  the 
courses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the  laws  governing  the  revolu- 
tions of  all  the  constellations.  Consequently,  in  recognition  of 


Chap.  VIII] 


FOUNDATIONS 


189 


this  benefaction,  painters  and  sculptors  represent  him  as  holding 
up  the  firmament,  and  the  Atlantides,  his  daughters,  whom  we 
call  “Vergiliae”  and  the  Greeks  HXecaSes,  are  consecrated  in 
the  firmament  among  the  constellations. 

7.  All  this,  however,  I have  not  set  forth  for  the  purpose  of 
changing  the  usual  terminology  or  language,  but  I have  thought 
that  it  should  be  explained  so  that  it  may  be  known  to 
scholars. 

I have  now  explained  the  usual  ways  of  planning  houses  both 
in  the  Italian  fashion  and  according  to  the  practices  of  the 
Greeks,  and  have  described,  with  regard  to  their  symmetry,  the 
proportions  of  the  different  classes.  Having,  therefore,  already 
written  of  their  beauty  and  propriety,  I shall  next  explain,  with 
reference  to  durability,  how  they  may  be  built  to  last  to  a great 
age  without  defects. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ON  FOUNDATIONS  AND  SUBSTRUCTURES 

1.  Houses  which  are  set  level  with  the  ground  will  no  doubt 
last  to  a great  age,  if  their  foundations  are  laid  in  the  manner 
which  we  have  explained  in  the  earlier  books,  with  regard  to  city 
walls  and  theatres.  But  if  underground  rooms  and  vaults  are  in- 
tended, their  foundations  ought  to  be  thicker  than  the  walls 
which  are  to  be  constructed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  house, 
and  the  walls,  piers,  and  columns  of  the  latter  should  be  set 
perpendicularly  over  the  middle  of  the  foundation  walls  below, 
so  that  they  may  have  solid  bearing;  for  if  the  load  of  the  walls 
or  columns  rests  on  the  middle  of  spans,  they  can  have  no  perma- 
nent durability. 

2.  It  will  also  do  no  harm  to  insert  posts  between  lintels  and 
sills  where  there  are  piers  or  antae;  for  where  the  lintels  and 
beams  have  received  the  load  of  the  walls,  they  may  sag  in  the 
middle,  and  gradually  undermine  and  destroy  the  walls.  But 


190 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


when  there  are  posts  set  up  underneath  and  wedged  in  there,  they 
prevent  the  beams  from  settling  and  injuring  such  walls. 

3.  We  must  also  manage  to  discharge  the  load  of  the  walls  by 
means  of  archings  composed  of  voussoirs  with  joints  radiating 
to  the  centre.  For  when  arches  with  voussoirs  are  sprung  from 
the  ends  of  beams,  or  from  the  bearings  of  lintels,  in  the  first 
place  they  will  discharge  the  load  and  the  wood  will  not  sag;  sec- 
ondly, if  in  course  of  time  the  wood  becomes  at  all  defective,  it 
can  easily  be  replaced  without  the  construction  of  shoring. 

4.  Likewise  in  houses  where  piers  are  used  in  the  construction, 
when  there  are  arches  composed  of  voussoirs  with  joints  radiat- 
ing to  the  centre,  the  outermost  piers  at  these  points  must  be 
made  broader  than  the  others,  so  that  they  may  have  the  strength 
to  resist  when  the  wedges,  under  the  pressure  of  the  load  of  the 
walls,  begin  to  press  along  their  joints  towards  the  centre,  and  thus 
to  thrust  out  the  abutments.  Hence,  if  the  piers  at  the  ends  are  of 
large  dimensions,  they  will  hold  the  voussoirs  together,  and 
make  such  works  durable. 

5.  Having  taken  heed  in  these  matters  to  see  that  proper  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  them,  we  must  also  be  equally  careful  that  all  walls 
are  perfectly  vertical,  and  that  they  do  not  lean  forward  anywhere. 
Particular  pains,  too,  must  be  taken  with  substructures,  for  here 
an  endless  amount  of  harm  is  usually  done  by  the  earth  used  as 
filling.  This  cannot  always  remain  of  the  same  weight  that  it 
usually  has  in  summer,  but  in  winter  time  it  increases  in  weight 
and  bulk  by  taking  up  a great  deal  of  rain  water,  and  then  it 
bursts  its  enclosing  walls  and  thrusts  them  out. 

6.  The  following  means  must  be  taken  to  provide  against  such 
a defect.  First,  let  the  walls  be  given  a thickness  proportionate  to 
the  amount  of  filling;  secondly,  build  counterforts  or  buttresses 
at  the  same  time  as  the  wall,  on  the  outer  side,  at  distances  from 
each  other  equivalent  to  what  is  to  be  the  height  of  the  substruc- 
ture and  with  the  thickness  of  the  substructure.  At  the  bottom 
let  them  run  out  to  a distance  corresponding  to  the  thickness 
that  has  been  determined  for  the  substructure,  and  then  gradu- 


Chap.  VIII]  FOUNDATIONS  191 

ally  diminish  in  extent  so  that  at  the  surface  their  projection  is 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  wall  of  the  building. 

7.  Furthermore,  inside,  to  meet  the  mass  of  earth,  there  should 
be  saw-shaped  constructions  attached  to  the  wall,  the  single 


RETAINING  WALLS 

(From  the  edition  of  Vitruvius  by  Fra  Giocondo,  Venice  1511) 


teeth  extending  from  the  wall  for  a distance  equivalent  to  what 
is  to  be  the  height  of  the  substructure,  and  the  teeth  being  con- 
structed with  the  same  thickness  as  the  wall.  Then  at  the  outer- 
most angles  take  a distance  inwards,  from  the  inside  of  the  angle, 
equal  to  the  height  of  the  substructure,  and  mark  it  off  on  each 
side;  from  these  marks  build  up  a diagonal  structure  and  from  the 
middle  of  it  a second,  joined  on  to  the  angle  of  the  wall.  With  this 
arrangement,  the  teeth  and  diagonal  structures  will  not  allow 
the  filling  to  thrust  with  all  its  force  against  the  wall,  but  will 
check  and  distribute  the  pressure. 

8.  I have  now  shown  how  buildings  can  be  constructed  without 
defects,  and  the  way  to  take  precautions  against  the  occurrence 


192 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VI 


of  them.  As  for  replacing  tiles,  roof  timbers,  and  rafters,  we  need 
not  be  so  particular  about  them  as  about  the  parts  just  mentioned, 
because  they  can  easily  be  replaced,  however  defective  they  may 
become.  Hence,  I have  shown  by  what  methods  the  parts  which 
are  not  considered  solid  can  be  rendered  durable,  and  how  they 
are  constructed. 

9.  As  for  the  kind  of  material  to  be  used,  this  does  not  depend 
upon  the  architect,  for  the  reason  that  all  kinds  of  materials  are 
not  found  in  all  places  alike,  as  has  been  shown  in  the  first  book. 
Besides,  it  depends  on  the  owner  whether  he  desires  to  build  in 
brick,  or  rubble  work,  or  dimension  stone.  Consequently  the 
question  of  approving  any  work  may  be  considered  under  three 
heads:  that  is,  delicacy  of  workmanship,  sumptuousness,  and 
design.  When  it  appears  that  a work  has  been  carried  out  sump- 
tuously, the  owner  will  be  the  person  to  be  praised  for  the  great 
outlay  which  he  has  authorized;  when  delicately,  the  master 
workman  will  be  approved  for  his  execution;  but  when  propor- 
tions and  symmetry  lend  it  an  imposing  effect,  then  the  glory  of 
it  will  belong  to  the  architect. 

10.  Such  results,  however,  may  very  well  be  brought  about 
when  he  allows  himself  to  take  the  advice  both  of  workmen  and 
of  laymen.  In  fact,  all  kinds  of  men,  and  not  merely  architects, 
can  recognize  a good  piece  of  work,  but  between  laymen  and  the 
latter  there  is  this  difference,  that  the  layman  cannot  tell  what  it 
is  to  be  like  without  seeing  it  finished,  whereas  the  architect,  as 
soon  as  he  has  formed  the  conception,  and  before  he  begins  the 
work,  has  a definite  idea  of  the  beauty,  the  convenience,  and 
the  propriety  that  will  distinguish  it. 

I have  now  described  as  clearly  as  I could  what  I thought  neces- 
sary for  private  houses,  and  how  to  build  them.  In  the  following 
book  I shall  treat  of  the  kinds  of  polished  finish  employed  to  make 
them  elegant,  and  durable  without  defects  to  a great  age. 


BOOK  VII 


BOOK  VII 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  It  was  a wise  and  useful  provision  of  the  ancients  to  trans- 
mit their  thoughts  to  posterity  by  recording  them  in  treatises,  so 
that  they  should  not  be  lost,  but,  being  developed  in  succeeding 
generations  through  publication  in  books,  should  gradually  attain 
in  later  times,  to  the  highest  refinement  of  learning.  And  so  the 
ancients  deserve  no  ordinary,  but  unending  thanks,  because  they 
did  not  pass  on  in  envious  silence,  but  took  care  that  their  ideas 
of  every  kind  should  be  transmitted  to  the  future  in  their  writings. 

2.  If  they  had  not  done  so,  we  could  not  have  known  what  deeds 
were  done  in  Troy,  nor  what  Thales,  Democritus,  Anaxagoras, 
Xenophanes,  and  the  other  physicists  thought  about  nature,  and 
what  rules  Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Zeno,  Epicurus,  and  other 
philosophers  laid  down  for  the  conduct  of  human  life;  nor  would 
the  deeds  and  motives  of  Croesus,  Alexander,  Darius,  and  other 
kings  have  been  known,  unless  the  ancients  had  compiled  treat- 
ises, and  published  them  in  commentaries  to  be  had  in  universal 
remembrance  with  posterity. 

3.  So,  while  they  deserve  our  thanks,  those,  on  the  contrary, 
deserve  our  reproaches,  who  steal  the  writings  of  such  men  and 
publish  them  as  their  own;  and  those  also,  who  depend  in  their 
writings,  not  on  their  own  ideas,  but  who  enviously  do  wrong  to  the 
works  of  others  and  boast  of  it,  deserve  not  merely  to  be  blamed, 
but  to  be  sentenced  to  actual  punishment  for  their  wicked  course 
of  life.  With  the  ancients,  however,  it  is  said  that  such  things 
did  not  pass  without  pretty  strict  chastisement.  What  the  re- 
sults of  their  judgments  were,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  set 
forth  as  they  are  transmitted  to  us. 

4.  The  kings  of  the  house  of  Attalus  having  established,  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  great  charms  of  literature,  an  excellent 


196 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


library  at  Pergamus  to  give  pleasure  to  the  public,  Ptolemy  also 
was  aroused  with  no  end  of  enthusiasm  and  emulation  into  exer- 
tions to  make  a similar  provision  with  no  less  diligence  at  Alexan- 
dria. Having  done  so  with  the  greatest  care,  he  felt  that  this  was 
not  enough  without  providing  for  its  increase  and  development, 
for  which  he  sowed  the  seed.  He  established  public  contests  in 
honour  of  the  Muses  and  Apollo,  and  appointed  prizes  and 
honours  for  victorious  authors  in  general,  as  is  done  in  the  case 
of  athletes. 

5.  These  arrangements  having  been  made,  and  the  contests 
being  at  hand,  it  became  necessary  to  select  literary  men  as 
judges  to  decide  them.  The  king  soon  selected  six  of  the  citizens, 
but  could  not  so  easily  find  a proper  person  to  be  the  seventh. 
He  therefore  turned  to  those  who  presided  over  the  library,  and 
asked  whether  they  knew  anybody  who  was  suitable  for  the 
purpose.  Then  they  told  him  that  there  was  one  Aristophanes 
who  was  daily  engaged  in  reading  through  all  the  books  with  the 
greatest  enthusiasm  and  the  greatest  care.  Hence,  when  the 
gathering  for  the  contests  took  place,  and  separate  seats  were 
set  apart  for  the  judges,  Aristophanes  was  summoned  with  the 
rest,  and  sat  down  in  the  place  assigned  to  him. 

6.  A group  of  poets  was  first  brought  in  to  contend,  and,  as 
they  recited  their  compositions,  the  whole  audience  by  its  ap- 
plause showed  the  judges  what  it  approved.  So,  when  they  were 
individually  asked  for  their  votes,  the  six  agreed,  and  awarded 
the  first  prize  to  the  poet  who,  as  they  observed,  had  most 
pleased  the  multitude,  and  the  second  to  the  one  who  came  next. 
But  Aristophanes,  on  being  asked  for  his  vote,  urged  that  the 
poet  who  had  least  pleased  the  audience  should  be  declared  to 
be  the  first. 

7.  As  the  king  and  the  entire  assembly  showed  great  indigna- 
tion, he  arose,  and  asked  and  received  permission  to  speak.  Si- 
lence being  obtained,  he  stated  that  only  one  of  them  — his  man 
— was  a poet,  and  that  the  rest  had  recited  things  not  their  own ; 
furthermore,  that  judges  ought  to  give  their  approval,  not  to 


INTRODUCTION 


197 


thefts,  but  to  original  compositions.  The  people  were  amazed,  and 
the  king  hesitated,  but  Aristophanes,  trusting  to  his  memory,  had 
a vast  number  of  volumes  brought  out  from  bookcases  which  he 
specified,  and,  by  comparing  them  with  what  had  been  recited, 
obliged  the  thieves  themselves  to  make  confession.  So,  the  king 
gave  orders  that  they  should  be  accused  of  theft,  and  after  con- 
demnation sent  them  off  in  disgrace;  but  he  honoured  Aristo- 
phanes with  the  most  generous  gifts,  and  put  him  in  charge  of  the 
library. 

8.  Some  years  later,  Zoilus,  who  took  the  surname  of  Homero- 
mastix,  came  from  Macedonia  to  Alexandria  and  read  to  the  king 
his  writings  directed  against  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  Ptolemy, 
seeing  the  father  of  poets  and  captain  of  all  literature  abused  in 
his  absence,  and  his  works,  to  which  all  the  wTorld  looked  up  in  ad- 
miration, disparaged  by  this  person,  made  no  rejoinder,  although 
he  thought  it  an  outrage.  Zoilus,  however,  after  remaining  in  the 
kingdom  some  time,  sank  into  poverty,  and  sent  a message  to  the 
king,  requesting  that  something  might  be  bestowed  upon  him. 

9.  But  it  is  said  that  the  king  replied,  that  Homer,  though  dead 
a thousand  years  ago,  had  all  that  time  been  the  means  of  live- 
lihood for  many  thousands  of  men;  similarly,  a person  who  laid 
claim  to  higher  genius  ought  to  be  able  to  support  not  one  man 
only,  but  many  others.  And  in  short,  various  stories  are  told  about 
his  death,  which  was  like  that  of  one  found  guilty  of  parricide. 
Some  writers  have  said  that  he  was  crucified  by  Philadelphus ; 
others  that  he  was  stoned  at  Chios;  others  again  that  he  was 
thrown  alive  upon  a funeral  pyre  at  Smyrna.  Whichever  of  these 
forms  of  death  befell  him,  it  was  a fitting  punishment  and  his  just 
due;  for  one  who  accuses  men  that  cannot  answer  and  show,  face 
to  face,  what  was  the  meaning  of  their  writings,  obviously  de- 
serves no  other  treatment. 

10.  But  for  my  part,  Caesar,  I am  not  bringing  forward  the 
present  treatise  after  changing  the  titles  of  other  men’s  books 
and  inserting  my  own  name,  nor  has  it  been  my  plan  to  win  ap- 
probation by  finding  fault  with  the  ideas  of  another.  On  the  con- 


198 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


Jrary,  I express  unlimited  thanks  to  all  the  authors  that  have  in 
the  past,  by  compiling  from  antiquity  remarkable  instances  of 
the  skill  shown  by  genius,  provided  us  with  abundant  materials  of 
different  kinds.  Drawing  from  them  as  it  were  water  from  springs, 
and  converting  them  to  our  own  purposes,  we  find  our  powers 
of  writing  rendered  more  fluent  and  easy,  and,  relying  upon  such 
authorities,  we  venture  to  produce  new  systems  of  instruction. 

11.  Hence,  as  I saw  that  such  beginnings  on  their  part  formed 
an  introduction  suited  to  the  nature  of  my  own  purpose,  I set 
out  to  draw  from  them,  and  to  go  somewhat  further. 

In  the  first  place  Agatharcus,  in  Athens,  when  Aeschylus  was 
bringing  out  a tragedy,  painted  a scene,  and  left  a commentary 
about  it.  This  led  Democritus  and  Anaxagoras  to  write  on  the 
same  subject,  showing  how,  given  a centre  in  a definite  place,  the 
lines  should  naturally  correspond  with  due  regard  to  the  point 
of  sight  and  the  divergence  of  the  visual  rays,  so  that  by  this 
deception  a faithful  representation  of  the  appearance  of  buildings 
might  be  given  in  painted  scenery,  and  so  that,  though  all  is 
drawn  on  a vertical  flat  fagade,  some  parts  may  seem  to  be  with- 
drawing into  the  background,  and  others  to  be  standing  out  in 
front. 

12.  Afterwards  Silenus  published  a book  on  the  proportions 
of  Doric  structures;  Theodorus,  on  the  Doric  temple  of  Juno 
which  is  in  Samos;  Chersiphron  and  Metagenes,  on  the  Ionic 
temple  at  Ephesus  which  is  Diana’s;  Pytheos,  on  the  Ionic  fane 
of  Minerva  which  is  at  Priene;  Ictinus  and  Carpion,  on  the 
Doric  temple  of  Minerva  which  is  on  the  acropolis  of  Athens ; 
Theodorus  the  Phocian,  on  the  Round  Building  which  is  at  Delphi; 
Philo,  on  the  proportions  of  temples,  and  on  the  naval  arsenal 
which  was  1 at  the  port  of  Peiraeus;  Hermogenes,  on  the  Ionic 
temple  of  Diana  which  is  at  Magnesia,  a pseudodipteral,  and  on 
that  of  Father  Bacchus  at  Teos,  a monopteral;  Arcesius,  on  the 
Corinthian  proportions,  and  on  the  Ionic  temple  of  Aesculapius 
at  Tralles,  which  it  is  said  that  he  built  with  his  own  hands;  on 

1 Codd.  fuerat. 


INTRODUCTION  199 

the  Mausoleum,  Satyrus  and  Pytheos  who  were  favoured  with 
the  greatest  and  highest  good  fortune. 

13.  For  men  whose  artistic  talents  are  believed  to  have  won 
them  the  highest  renown  for  all  time,  and  laurels  forever  green, 
devised  and  executed  works  of  supreme  excellence  in  this  build- 
ing. The  decoration  and  perfection  of  the  different  fagades  were 
undertaken  by  different  artists  in  emulation  with  each  other: 
Leochares,  Bryaxis,  Scopas,  Praxiteles,  and,  as  some  think, 
Timotheus;  and  the  distinguished  excellence  of  their  art  made 
that  building  famous  among  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 

14.  Then,  too,  many  less  celebrated  men  have  written  treatises 
on  the  laws  of  symmetry,  such  as  Nexaris,  Theocydes,  Demo- 
philus,  Pollis,  Leonidas,  Silanion,  Melampus,  Sarnacus,  and 
Euphranor;  others  again  on  machinery,  such  as  Diades,  Archy- 
tas,  Archimedes,  Ctesibius,  Nymphodorus,  Philo  of  Byzantium, 
Diphilus,  Democles,  Charias,  Polyidus,  Pyrrus,  and  Agesistratus. 
From  their  commentaries  I have  gathered  what  I saw  was  use- 
ful for  the  present  subject,  and  formed  it  into  one  complete  treat- 
ise, and  this  principally,  because  I saw  that  many  books  in  this 
field  had  been  published  by  the  Greeks,  but  very  few  indeed  by 
our  countrymen.  Fuficius,  in  fact,  was  the  first  to  undertake  to 
publish  a book  on  this  subject.  Terentius  Varro,  also,  in  his  work 
“On  the  Nine  Sciences”  has  one  book  on  architecture,  and 
Publius  Septimius,  two. 

15.  But  to  this  day  nobody  else  seems  to  have  bent  his  ener- 
gies to  this  branch  of  literature,  although  there  have  been,  even 
among  our  fellow-citizens  in  old  times,  great  architects  who  could 
also  have  written  with  elegance.  For  instance,  in  Athens,  the 
architects  Antistates,  Callaeschrus,  Antimachides,  and  Pormus 
laid  the  foundations  when  Peisistratus  began  the  temple  of  Olym- 
pian Jove,  but  after  his  death  they  abandoned  the  undertaking, 
on  account  of  political  troubles.  Hence  it  was  that  when,  about 
four  hundred  years  later,  King  Antiochus  promised  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  that  work,  the  huge  cella,  the  surrounding  columns 
in  dipteral  arrangement,  and  the  architraves  and  other  orna- 


200 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


ments,  adjusted  according  to  the  laws  of  symmetry,  were  nobly 
constructed  with  great  skill  and  supreme  knowledge  by  Cossu- 
tius,  a citizen  of  Rome.  Moreover,  this  work  has  a name  for 
its  grandeur,  not  only  in  general,  but  also  among  the  select 
few. 

16.  There  are,  in  fact,  four  places  possessing  temples  embel- 
lished with  workmanship  in  marble  that  causes  them  to  be  men- 
tioned in  a class  by  themselves  with  the  highest  renown.  To  their 
great  excellence  and  the  wisdom  of  their  conception  they  owe 
their  place  of  esteem  in  the  ceremonial  worship  of  the  gods. 
First  there  is  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  in  the  Ionic  style, 
undertaken  by  Chersiphron  of  Gnosus  and  his  son  Metagenes, 
and  said  to  have  been  finished  later  by  Demetrius,  who  was  him- 
self a slave  of  Diana,  and  by  Paeonius  the  Milesian.  At  Miletus, 
the  temple  of  Apollo,  also  Ionic  in  its  proportions,  was  the  under- 
taking of  the  same  Paeonius  and  of  the  Ephesian  Daphnis.  At 
Eleusis,  the  cella  of  Ceres  and  Proserpine,  of  vast  size,  was 
completed  to  the  roof  by  Ictinus  in  the  Doric  style,  but  without 
exterior  columns  and  with  plenty  of  room  for  the  customary 
sacrifices. 

17.  Afterwards,  however,  when  Demetrius  of  Phalerum  was 
master  of  Athens,  Philo  set  up  columns  in  front  before  the  temple, 
and  made  it  prostyle.  Thus,  by  adding  an  entrance  hall,  he  gave 
the  initiates  more  room,  and  imparted  the  greatest  dignity  to  the 
building.  Finally,  in  Athens,  the  temple  of  the  Olympion  with 
its  dimensions  on  a generous  scale,  and  built  in  the  Corinthian 
style  and  proportions,  is  said  to  have  been  constructed,  as  written 
above,  by  Cossutius,  no  commentary  by  whom  has  been  found. 
But  Cossutius  is  not  the  only  man  by  whom  we  should  like  to  have 
writings  on  our  subject.  Another  is  Gaius  Mucius,  who,  having 
great  knowledge  on  which  to  rely,  completed  the  cella,  columns, 
and  entablature  of  the  Marian  temple  of  Honour  and  Valour, 
in  symmetrical  proportions  according  to  the  accepted  rules  of 
the  art.  If  this  building  had  been  of  marble,  so  that  besides 
the  refinement  of  its  art  it  possessed  the  dignity  coming  from 


INTRODUCTION  201 

magnificence  and  great  outlay,  it  would  be  reckoned  among  the 
first  and  greatest  of  works. 

18.  Since  it  appears,  then,  that  our  architects  in  the  old  days, 
and  a good  many  even  in  our  own  times,  have  been  as  great  as 
those  of  the  Greeks,  and  nevertheless  only  a few  of  them  have 
published  treatises,  I resolved  not  to  be  silent,  but  to  treat  the 
different  topics  methodically  in  different  books.  Hence,  since 
I have  given  an  account  of  private  houses  in  the  sixth  book,  in 
this,  which  is  the  seventh  in  order,  I shall  treat  of  polished 
finishings  and  the  methods  of  giving  them  both  beauty  and 
durability. 


CHAPTER  I 


FLOORS 

1.  First  I shall  begin  with  the  concrete  flooring,  which  is  the 
most  important  of  the  polished  finishings,  observing  that  great 
pains  and  the  utmost  precaution  must  be  taken  to  ensure  its  dur- 
ability. If  this  concrete  flooring  is  to  be  laid  level  with  the  ground, 
let  the  soil  be  tested  to  see  whether  it  is  everywhere  solid,  and  if 
it  is,  level  it  off  and  upon  it  lay  the  broken  stone  with  its  bedding. 
But  if  the  floor  is  either  wholly  or  partly  filling,  it  should  be 
rammed  down  hard  with  great  care.  In  case  a wooden  framework 
is  used,  however,  we  must  see  that  no  wall  which  does  not  reach 
up  to  the  top  of  the  house  is  constructed  under  the  floor.  Any 
wall  which  is  there  should  preferably  fall  short,  so  as  to  leave  the 
wooden  planking  above  it  an  unsupported  span.  If  a wall  comes 
up  solid,  the  unyielding  nature  of  its  solid  structure  must,  when 
the  joists  begin  to  dry,  or  to  sag  and  settle,  lead  to  cracks  in  the 
floor  on  the  right  and  left  along  the  line  of  wall. 

2.  We  must  also  be  careful  that  no  common  oak  gets  in  with 
the  winter  oak  boards,  for  as  soon  as  common  oak  boards  get 
damp,  they  warp  and  cause  cracks  in  floors.  But  if  there  is  no 
winter  oak,  and  necessity  drives,  for  lack  of  this  it  seems  advis- 
able to  use  common  oak  boards  cut  pretty  thin ; for  the  less  thick 
they  are,  the  more  easily  they  can  be  held  in  place  by  being  nailed 
on.  Then,  at  the  ends  of  every  joist,  nail  on  two  boards  so  that 
they  shall  not  be  able  to  warp  and  stick  up  at  the  edges.  As  for 
Turkey  oak  or  beech  or  ash,  none  of  them  can  last  to  a great  age. 

When  the  wooden  planking  is  finished,  cover  it  with  fern,  if 
there  is  any,  otherwise  with  straw,  to  protect  the  wood  from  being 
hurt  by  the  lime. 

3.  Then,  upon  this  lay  the  bedding,  composed  of  stones  not 
smaller  than  can  fill  the  hand.  After  the  bedding  is  laid,  mix  the 


Chap.  IJ 


FLOORS 


203 


broken  stone  in  the  proportions,  if  it  is  new,  of  three  parts  to  one 
of  lime;  if  it  is  old  material  used  again,  five  parts  may  answer  to 
two  in  the  mixture.  Next,  lay  the  mixture  of  broken  stone,  bring 
on  your  gangs,  and  beat  it  again  and  again  with  wooden  beetles 
into  a solid  mass,  and  let  it  be  not  less  than  three  quarters  of  a 
foot  in  thickness  when  the  beating  is  finished.  On  this  lay  the 
nucleus,  consisting  of  pounded  tile  mixed  with  lime  in  the  pro- 
portions of  three  parts  to  one,  and  forming  a layer  not  less  than 
six  digits  thick.  On  top  of  the  nucleus,  the  floor,  whether  made 
of  cut  slips  or  of  cubes,  should  be  well  and  truly  laid  by  rule  and 
level. 

4.  After  it  is  laid  and  set  at  the  proper  inclination,  let  it  be 
rubbed  down  so  that,  if  it  consists  of  cut  slips,  the  lozenges,  or 
triangles,  or  squares,  or  hexagons  may  not  stick  up  at  different 
levels,  but  be  all  jointed  together  on  the  same  plane  with  one 
another;  if  it  is  laid  in  cubes,  so  that  all  the  edges  may  be  level; 
for  the  rubbing  down  will  not  be  properly  finished  unless  all  the 
edges  are  on  the  same  level  plane.  The  herring-bone  pattern, 
made  of  Tibur  burnt  brick,  must  also  be  carefully  finished,  so  as 
to  be  without  gaps  or  ridges  sticking  up,  but  all  flat  and  rubbed 
down  to  rule.  When  the  rubbing  down  is  completely  finished  by 
means  of  the  smoothing  and  polishing  processes,  sift  powdered 
marble  on  top,  and  lay  on  a coating  of  lime  and  sand. 

5.  In  the  open  air,  specially  adapted  kinds  of  floors  must  be 
made,  because  their  framework,  swelling  with  dampness,  or 
shrinking  from  dryness,  or  sagging  and  settling,  injures  the  floors 
by  these  changes;  besides,  the  frost  and  rime  will  not  let  them  go 
unhurt.  Hence,  if  necessity  drives,  we  must  proceed  as  follows 
in  order  to  make  them  as  free  from  defects  as  possible.  After 
finishing  the  plank  flooring,  lay  a second  plank  flooring  over  it  at 
right  angles,  and  nail  it  down  so  as  to  give  double  protection  to 
the  framework.  Then,  mix  with  new  broken  stone  one  third  the 
quantity  of  pounded  tile,  and  let  lime  be  added  to  the  mixture 
in  the  mortar  trough  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts  to  five. 

6.  Having  made  the  bedding,  lay  on  this  mixture  of  broken 


204 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


stone,  and  let  it  be  not  less  than  a foot  thick  when  the  beating  is 
finished.  Then,  after  laying  the  nucleus,  as  above  described,  con- 
struct the  floor  of  large  cubes  cut  about  two  digits  each  way,  and 
let  it  have  an  inclination  of  two  digits  for  every  ten  feet.  If  it 
is  well  put  together  and  properly  rubbed  down,  it  will  be  free 
from  all  flaws.  In  order  that  the  mortar  in  the  joints  may  not 
suffer  from  frosts,  drench  it  with  oil-dregs  every  year  before 
winter  begins.  Thus  treated,  it  will  not  let  the  hoarfrost  enter  it. 

7.  If,  however,  it  seems  needful  to  use  still  greater  care,  lay 
two-foot  tiles,  jointed  together  in  a bed  of  mortar,  over  the 
broken  stone,  with  little  channels  of  one  finger’s  breadth  cut  in 
the  faces  of  all  the  joints.  Connect  these  channels  and  fill  them 
with  a mixture  of  lime  and  oil;  then,  rub  the  joints  hard  and  make 
them  compact.  Thus,  the  lime  sticking  in  the  channels  will 
harden  and  solidify  into  a mass,  and  so  prevent  water  or  anything 
else  from  penetrating  through  the  joints.  After  this  layer  is  fin- 
ished, spread  the  nucleus  upon  it,  and  work  it  down  by  beating 
it  with  rods.  Upon  this  lay  the  floor,  at  the  inclination  above 
described,  either  of  large  cubes  or  burnt  brick  in  herring-bone 
pattern,  and  floors  thus  constructed  will  not  soon  be  spoiled. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  SLAKING  OF  LIME  FOR  STUCCO 

1.  Leaving  the  subject  of  floors,  we  must  next  treat  of  stucco 
work.  This  will  be  all  right  if  the  best  lime,  taken  in  lumps,  is 
slaked  a good  while  before  it  is  to  be  used,  so  that  if  any  lump 
has  not  been  burned  long  enough  in  the  kiln,  it  will  be  forced  to 
throw  off  its  heat  during  the  long  course  of  slaking  in  the  water, 
and  will  thus  be  thoroughly  burned  to  the  same  consistency. 
When  it  is  taken  not  thoroughly  slaked  but  fresh,  it  has  little 
crude  bits  concealed  in  it,  and  so,  when  applied,  it  blisters.  WTien 
such  bits  complete  their  slaking  after  they  are  on  the  building, 
they  break  up  and  spoil  the  smooth  polish  of  the  stucco. 


Chap.  Ill]  VAULTINGS  AND  STUCCO  WORK 


205 


2.  But  when  the  proper  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  slaking, 
and  greater  pains  have  thus  been  employed  in  the  preparation 
for  the  work,  take  a hoe,  and  apply  it  to  the  slaked  lime  in  the 
mortar  bed  just  as  you  hew  wood.  If  it  sticks  to  the  hoe  in  bits, 
the  lime  is  not  yet  tempered;  and  when  the  iron  is  drawn  out  dry 
and  clean,  it  will  show  that  the  lime  is  weak  and  thirsty;  but  when 
the  lime  is  rich  and  properly  slaked,  it  will  stick  to  the  tool  like 
glue,  proving  that  it  is  completely  tempered.  Then  get  the  scaf- 
folding ready,  and  proceed  to  construct  the  vaultings  in  the  rooms, 
unless  they  are  to  be  decorated  with  flat  coffered  ceilings. 


CHAPTER  III 

VAULTINGS  AND  STUCCO  WORK 

1.  When  vaulting  is  required,  the  procedure  should  be  as  fol- 
lows. Set  up  horizontal  furring  strips  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  two  feet  apart,  using  preferably  cypress,  as  fir  is  soon  spoiled 
by  decay  and  by  age.  Arrange  these  strips  so  as  to  form  a curve, 
and  make  them  fast  to  the  joists  of  the  floor  above  or  to  the  roof, 
if  it  is  there,  by  nailing  them  with  many  iron  nails  to  ties  fixed  at 
intervals.  These  ties  should  be  made  of  a kind  of  wood  that 
neither  decay  nor  time  nor  dampness  can  spoil,  such  as  box, 
juniper,  olive,  oak,  cypress,  or  any  other  similar  wood  except 
common  oak;  for  this  warps,  and  causes  cracks  in  work  in  which 
it  is  used. 

2.  Having  arranged  the  furring  strips,  take  cord  made  of  Span- 
ish broom,  and  tie  Greek  reeds,  previously  pounded  flat,  to  them 
in  the  required  contour.  Immediately  above  the  vaulting  spread 
some  mortar  made  of  lime  and  sand,  to  check  any  drops  that  may 
fall  from  the  joists  or  from  the  roof.  If  a supply  of  Greek  reed  is 
not  to  be  had,  gather  slender  marsh  reeds,  and  make  them  up  with 
silk  cord  into  bundles  all  of  the  same  thickness  and  adjusted 
to  the  proper  length,  provided  that  the  bundles  are  not  more  than 
two  feet  long  between  any  two  knots.  Then  tie  them  with  cord 


£06 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


to  the  beams,  as  above  described,  and  drive  wooden  pegs  into 
them.  Make  all  the  other  preparations  as  above  described. 

3.  Having  thus  set  the  vaultings  in  their  places  and  interwoven 
them,  apply  the  rendering  coat  to  their  lower  surface;  then  lay 
on  the  sand  mortar,  and  afterwards  polish  it  off  with  the  pow- 
dered marble.  After  the  vaultings  have  been  polished,  set  the 
impost  mouldings  directly  beneath  them.  These  obviously 
ought  to  be  made  extremely  slender  and  delicate,  for  when  they 
are  large,  their  weight  carries  them  down,  and  they  cannot  sup- 
port themselves.  Gypsum  should  by  no  means  be  used  in  their 
composition,  but  powdered  marble  should  be  laid  on  uniformly, 
lest  gypsum,  by  setting  too  quickly  should  keep  the  work  from 
drying  uniformly.  We  must  also  beware  of  the  ancients’  scheme 
for  vaultings;  for  in  their  mouldings  the  soffits  overhang  very 
heavily,  and  are  dangerous. 

4.  Some  mouldings  are  flat,  others  in  relief.  In  rooms  where 
there  has  to  be  a fire  or  a good  many  lights,  they  should  be  flat, 
so  that  they  can  be  wiped  off  more  easily.  In  summer  apart- 
ments and  in  exedrae  where  there  is  no  smoke  nor  soot  to  hurt 
them,  they  should  be  made  in  relief.  It  is  always  the  case  that 
stucco,  in  the  pride  of  its  dazzling  white,  gathers  smoke  not  only 
from  its  own  house  but  also  from  others. 

5.  Having  finished  the  mouldings,  apply  a very  rough  render- 
ing coat  to  the  walls,  and  afterwards,  when  the  rendering  coat 
gets  pretty  dry,  spread  upon  it  the  layers  of  sand  mortar,  exactly 
adjusted  in  length  to  rule  and  line,  in  height  to  the  plummet,  and 
at  the  angles  to  the  square.  The  stucco  will  thus  present  a fault- 
less appearance  for  paintings.  When  it  gets  pretty  dry,  spread  on 
a second  coat  and  then  a third.  The  better  the  foundation  of 
sand  mortar  that  is  laid  on,  the  stronger  and  more  durable  in 
its  solidity  will  be  the  stucco. 

6.  When  not  less  than  three  coats  of  sand  mortar,  besides  the 
rendering  coat,  have  been  laid  on,  then,  we  must  make  the  mix- 
ture for  the  layers  of  powdered  marble,  the  mortar  being  so 
tempered  that  when  mixed  it  does  not  stick  to  the  trowel,  but 


207 


Chap.  Ill]  VAULTINGS  AND  STUCCO  WORK 

the  iron  comes  out  freely  and  clean  from  the  mortar  trough. 
After  this  powdered  marble  has  been  spread  on  and  gets  dry, 
lay  on  a medium  second  coat.  When  that  has  been  applied  and 
well  rubbed  down,  spread  on  a finer  coat.  The  walls,  being  thus 
rendered  solid  by  three  coats  of  sand  mortar  and  as  many  of 
marble,  will  not  possibly  be  liable  to  cracks  or  to  any  other  defect. 

7.  And  further,  such  walls,  owing  to  the  solid  foundation  given 
by  thorough  working  with  polishing  instruments,  and  the  smooth- 
ness of  it,  due  to  the  hard  and  dazzling  white  marble,  will  bring 
out  in  brilliant  splendour  the  colours  which  are  laid  on  at  the  same 
time  with  the  polishing. 

These  colours,  when  they  are  carefully  laid  on  stucco  still 
wet,  do  not  fade  but  are  permanent.  This  is  because  the  lime, 
having  had  its  moisture  burned  out  in  the  kiln,  becomes  porous 
and  loses  its  strength,  and  its  dryness  makes  it  take  up  anything 
that  may  come  in  contact  with  it.  On  mixing  with  the  seeds  or 
elements  that  come  from  other  substances,  it  forms  a solid  mass 
with  them  and,  no  matter  what  the  constituent  parts  may  then 
be,  it  must,  obviously,  on  becoming  dry,  possess  the  qualities 
which  are  peculiar  to  its  own  nature. 

8.  Hence,  stucco  that  is  properly  made  does  not  get  rough  as 
time  goes  on,  nor  lose  its  colours  when  it  is  wiped  off,  unless  they 
have  been  laid  on  with  little  care  and  after  it  is  dry.  So,  when  the 
stucco  on  walls  is  made  as  described  above,  it  will  have  strength 
and  brilliancy,  and  an  excellence  that  will  last  to  a great  age.  But 
when  only  one  coat  of  sand  mortar  and  one  of  fine  marble  have 
been  spread  on,  its  thin  layer  is  easily  cracked  from  want  of 
strength,  and  from  its  lack  of  thickness  it  will  not  take  on  the 
brilliance,  due  to  polishing,  which  it  ought  to  have. 

9.  Just  as  a silver  mirror  that  is  formed  of  a thin  plate  reflects 
indistinctly  and  with  a feeble  light,  while  one  that  is  substantially 
made  can  take  on  a very  high  polish,  and  reflects  a brilliant  and 
distinct  image  when  one  looks  therein,  so  it  is  with  stucco.  When 
the  stuff  of  which  it  is  formed  is  thin,  it  not  only  cracks  but  also 
soon  fades;  when,  however,  it  has  a solid  foundation  of  sand  mor- 


208 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


tar  and  of  marble,  thickly  and  compactly  applied,  it  is  not  only 
brilliant  after  being  subjected  to  repeated  polishings,  but  also 
reflects  from  its  surface  a clear  image  of  the  beholder. 

10.  The  Greek  stucco- workers  not  only  employ  these  methods 
to  make  their  works  durable,  but  also  construct  a mortar  trough, 
mix  the  lime  and  sand  in  it,  bring  on  a gang  of  men,  and  beat  the 
stuff  with  wooden  beetles,  and  do  not  use  it  until  it  has  been  thus 
vigorously  worked.  Hence,  some  cut  slabs  out  of  old  walls  and  use 
them  as  panels,  and  the  stucco  of  such  panels  and  “reflectors  ” has 
projecting  bevelled  edges  all  round  it. 

11.  But  if  stucco  has  to  be  made  on  “wattle  and  daub,”  where 
there  must  be  cracks  at  the  uprights  and  cross-sticks,  because  they 
must  take  in  moisture  when  they  are  daubed  with  the  mud,  and 
cause  cracks  in  the  stucco  when  they  dry  and  shrink,  the  follow- 
ing method  will  prevent  this  from  happening.  After  the  whole 
wall  has  been  smeared  with  the  mud,  nail  rows  of  reeds  to  it  by 
means  of  “fly -nails,”  then  spread  on  the  mud  a second  time,  and, 
if  the  first  rows  have  been  nailed  with  the  shafts  transverse,  nail 
on  a second  set  with  the  shafts  vertical,  and  then,  as  above  de- 
scribed, spread  on  the  sand  mortar,  the  marble,  and  the  whole 
mass  of  stucco.  Thus,  the  double  series  of  reeds  with  their  shafts 
crossing  on  the  walls  will  prevent  any  chipping  or  cracking  from 
taking  place. 


CHAPTER  IV 

ON  STUCCO  WORK  IN  DAMP  PLACES,  AND  ON  THE  DECORATION 

OF  DINING  ROOMS 

1.  Having  spoken  of  the  method  by  which  stucco  work  should 
be  done  in  dry  situations,  I shall  next  explain  how  the  polished 
finish  is  to  be  accomplished  in  places  that  are  damp,  in  such  a way 
that  it  can  last  without  defects.  First,  in  apartments  which  are 
level  with  the  ground,  apply  a rendering  coat  of  mortar,  mixed 
with  burnt  brick  instead  of  sand,  to  a height  of  about  three  feet 
above  the  floor,  and  then  lay  on  the  stucco  so  that  those  portions 


Chap.  IV] 


ON  STUCCO  WORK 


209 


of  it  may  not  be  injured  by  the  dampness.  But  if  a wall  is  in  a 
state  of  dampness  all  over,  construct  a second  thin  wall  a little 
way  from  it  on  the  inside,  at  a distance  suited  to  circumstances, 
and  in  the  space  between  these  two  walls  run  a channel,  at  a lower 
level  than  that  of  the  apartment,  with  vents  to  the  open  air. 
Similarly,  when  the  wall  is  brought  up  to  the  top,  leave  air- 
holes there.  For  if  the  moisture  has  no  means  of  getting  out  by 
vents  at  the  bottom  and  at  the  top,  it  will  not  fail  to  spread  all 
over  the  new  wall.  This  done,  apply  a rendering  coat  of  mortar 
made  with  burnt  brick  to  this  wall,  spread  on  the  layer  of  stucco, 
and  polish  it. 

2.  But  if  there  is  not  room  enough  for  the  construction  of  a 
wall,  make  channels  with  their  vents  extending  to  the  open  air. 
Then  lay  two-foot  tiles  resting  on  the  margin  of  the  channel  on 
one  side,  and  on  the  other  side  construct  a foundation  of  pillars 
for  them,  made  of  eight-inch  bricks,  on  top  of  each  of  which  the 
edges  of  two  tiles  may  be  supported,  each  pillar  being  not  more 
than  a hand’s  breadth  distant  from  the  wall.  Then,  above,  set 
hooked  tiles  fastened  to  the  wall  from  bottom  to  top,  carefully 
covering  the  inner  sides  of  them  with  pitch  so  that  they  will  reject 
moisture.  Both  at  the  bottom  and  at  the  top  above  the  vaulting 
they  should  have  airholes. 

3.  Then,  whitewash  them  with  lime  and  water  so  that  they  will 
not  reject  the  rendering  coat  of  burnt  brick.  For,  as  they  are  dry 
from  the  loss  of  water  burnt  out  in  the  kiln,  they  can  neither  take 
nor  hold  the  rendering  coat  unless  lime  has  been  applied  beneath 
it  to  stick  the  two  substances  together,  and  make  them  unite. 
After  spreading  the  rendering  coat  upon  this,  apply  layers  of 
burnt  brick  mortar  instead  of  sand  mortar,  and  finish  up  all  the 
rest  in  the  manner  described  above  for  stucco  work. 

4.  The  decorations  of  the  polished  surfaces  of  the  walls  ought 
to  be  treated  with  due  regard  to  propriety,  so  as  to  be  adapted  to 
their  situations,  and  not  out  of  keeping  with  differences  in  kind. 
In  winter  dining  rooms,  neither  paintings  on  grand  subjects  nor 
delicacy  of  decoration  in  the  cornice  work  of  the  vaultings  is  a 


210 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


serviceable  kind  of  design,  because  they  are  spoiled  by  the  smoke 
from  the  fire  and  the  constant  soot  from  the  lamps.  In  these  rooms 
there  should  be  panels  above  the  dadoes,  worked  in  black,  and 
polished,  with  yellow  ochre  or  vermilion  blocks  interposed  be- 
tween them.  After  the  vaulting  has  been  treated  in  the  flat  style, 
and  polished,  the  Greek  method  of  making  floors  for  use  in  winter 
dining  rooms  may  not  be  unworthy  of  one’s  notice,  as  being  very 
inexpensive  and  yet  serviceable. 

5.  An  excavation  is  made  below  the  level  of  the  dining  room  to 
a depth  of  about  two  feet,  and,  after  the  ground  has  been  rammed 
down,  the  mass  of  broken  stones  or  the  pounded  burnt  brick  is 
spread  on,  at  such  an  inclination  that  it  can  find  vents  in  the  drain. 
Next,  having  filled  in  with  charcoal  compactly  trodden  down,  a 
mortar  mixed  of  gravel,  lime,  and  ashes  is  spread  on  to  a depth 
of  half  a foot.  The  surface  having  been  made  true  to  rule  and  level, 
and  smoothed  off  with  whetstone,  gives  the  look  of  a black  pave- 
ment. Hence,  at  their  dinner  parties,  whatever  is  poured  out  of 
the  cups,  or  spirted  from  the  mouth,  no  sooner  falls  than  it  dries 
up,  and  the  servants  who  wait  there  do  not  catch  cold  from  that 
kind  of  floor,  although  they  may  go  barefoot. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  DECADENCE  OF  FRESCO  PAINTING 

1.  For  the  other  apartments,  that  is,  those  intended  to  be  used 
in  Spring,  Autumn,  and  Summer,  as  well  as  for  atriums  and 
peristyles,  the  ancients  required  realistic  pictures  of  real  things. 
A picture  is,  in  fact,  a representation  of  a thing  which  really 
exists  or  which  can  exist:  for  example,  a man,  a house,  a ship, 
or  anything  else  from  whose  definite  and  actual  structure  copies 
resembling  it  can  be  taken.  Consequently  the  ancients  who  intro- 
duced polished  finishings  began  by  representing  different  kinds 
of  marble  slabs  in  different  positions,  and  then  cornices  and 
blocks  of  yellow  ochre  arranged  in  various  ways. 


Chap.  V] 


FRESCO  PAINTING 


211 


2.  Afterwards  they  made  such  progress  as  to  represent  the  forms 
of  buildings,  and  of  columns,  and  projecting  and  overhanging  pedi- 
ments; in  their  open  rooms,  such  as  exedrae,  on  account  of  the 
size,  they  depicted  the  fagades  of  scenes  in  the  tragic,  comic, 
or  satyric  style;  and  their  walks,  on  account  of  the  great  length, 
they  decorated  with  a variety  of  landscapes,  copying  the  char- 
acteristics of  definite  spots.  In  these  paintings  there  are  har- 
bours, promontories,  seashores,  rivers,  fountains,  straits,  fanes, 
groves,  mountains,  flocks,  shepherds;  in  some  places  there  are 
also  pictures  designed  in  the  grand  style,  with  figures  of  the  gods 
or  detailed  mythological  episodes,  or  the  battles  at  Troy,  or  the 
wanderings  of  Ulysses,  with  landscape  backgrounds,  and  other 
subjects  reproduced  on  similar  principles  from  real  life. 

3.  But  those  subjects  which  were  copied  from  actual  realities 
are  scorned  in  these  days  of  bad  taste.  We  now  have  fresco 
paintings  of  monstrosities,  rather  than  truthful  representations 
of  definite  things.  For  instance,  reeds  are  put  in  the  place  of 
columns,  fluted  appendages  with  curly  leaves  and  volutes,  in- 
stead of  pediments,  candelabra  supporting  representations  of 
shrines,  and  on  top  of  their  pediments  numerous  tender  stalks 
and  volutes  growing  up  from  the  roots  and  having  human  figures 
senselessly  seated  upon  them;  sometimes  stalks  having  only 
half-length  figures,  some  with  human  heads,  others  with  the  heads 
of  animals. 

4.  Such  things  do  not  exist  and  cannot  exist  and  never  have 
existed.  Hence,  it  is  the  new  taste  that  has  caused  bad  judges  of 
poor  art  to  prevail  over  true  artistic  excellence.  For  how  is  it 
possible  that  a reed  should  really  support  a roof,  or  a candelabrum 
a pediment  with  its  ornaments,  or  that  such  a slender,  flexible 
thing  as  a stalk  should  support  a figure  perched  upon  it,  or  that 
roots  and  stalks  should  produce  now  flowers  and  now  half-length 
figures?  Yet  when  people  see  these  frauds,  they  find  no  fault  with 
them  but  on  the  contrary  are  delighted,  and  do  not  care  whether 
any  of  them  can  exist  or  not.  Their  understanding  is  darkened 
by  decadent  critical  principles,  so  that  it  is  not  capable  of  giving 


212 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


its  approval  authoritatively  and  on  the  principle  of  propriety 
to  that  which  really  can  exist.  The  fact  is  that  pictures  which  are 
unlike  reality  ought  not  to  be  approved,  and  even  if  they  are  tech- 
nically fine,  this  is  no  reason  why  they  should  offhand  be  judged 
to  be  correct,  if  their  subject  is  lacking  in  the  principles  of  reality 
carried  out  with  no  violations. 

5.  For  instance,  at  Tralles,  Apaturius  of  Alabanda  designed 
with  skilful  hand  the  scaena  of  the  little  theatre  which  is 
there  called  the  eKK\7]aiaaTrjpLovf  representing  columns  in  it 
and  statues,  Centaurs  supporting  the  architraves,  rotundas  with 
round  roofs  on  them,  pediments  with  overhanging  returns,  and 
cornices  ornamented  with  lions’  heads,  which  are  meant  for 
nothing  but  the  rainwater  from  the  roofs,  — and  then  on  top  of 
it  all  he  made  an  episcaenium  in  which  were  painted  rotundas, 
porticoes,  half -pediments,  and  all  the  different  kinds  of  decora- 
tion employed  in  a roof.  The  effect  of  high  relief  in  this  scaena 
was  very  attractive  to  all  who  beheld  it,  and  they  were  ready  to 
give  their  approval  to  the  work,  when  Licymnius  the  mathema- 
tician came  forward  and  said  that  (6.)  the  Alabandines  were  con- 
sidered bright  enough  in  all  matters  of  politics,  but  that  on  ac- 
count of  one  slight  defect,  the  lack  of  the  sense  of  propriety,  they 
were  believed  to  be  unintelligent.  “In  their  gymnasium  the  stat- 
ues are  all  pleading  causes,  in  their  forum,  throwing  the  discus, 
running,  or  playing  ball.  This  disregard  of  propriety  in  the  inter- 
change of  statues  appropriate  to  different  places  has  brought 
the  state  as  a whole  into  disrepute.  Let  us  then  beware  lest  this 
scaena  of  Apaturius  make  Alabandines  or  Abderites  of  us.  Which 
of  you  can  have  houses  or  columns  or  extensive  pediments  on  top 
of  his  tiled  roof?  Such  things  are  built  above  the  floors,  not  above 
the  tiled  roofs.  Therefore,  if  we  give  our  approval  to  pictures  of 
things  which  can  have  no  reason  for  existence  in  actual  fact,  we 
shall  be  voluntarily  associating  ourselves  with  those  communi- 
ties which  are  believed  to  be  unintelligent  on  account  of  just  such 
defects.” 

7.  Apaturius  did  not  venture  to  make  any  answer,  but  removed 


Chap.  VI]  MARBLE  FOR  USE  IN  STUCCO 


213 


the  scaena,  altered  it  so  that  it  conformed  to  reality,  and  gave 
satisfaction  with  it  in  its  improved  state.  Would  to  God  that 
Licymnius  could  come  to  life  again  and  reform  the  present  con- 
dition of  folly  and  mistaken  practices  in  fresco  painting!  How- 
ever, it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  explain  why  this  false  method 
prevails  over  the  truth.  The  fact  is  that  the  artistic  excellence 
which  the  ancients  endeavoured  to  attain  by  working  hard  and 
taking  pains,  is  now  attempted  by  the  use  of  colours  and  the 
brave  show  which  they  make,  and  expenditure  by  the  em- 
ployer prevents  people  from  missing  the  artistic  refinements 
that  once  lent  authority  to  works. 

8.  For  example,  which  of  the  ancients  can  be  found  to  have 
used  vermilion  otherwise  than  sparingly,  like  a drug?  But  to- 
day whole  walls  are  commonly  covered  with  it  everywhere. 
Then,  too,  there  is  malachite  green,  purple,  and  Armenian  blue. 
When  these  colours  are  laid  on,  they  present  a brilliant  appear- 
ance to  the  eye  even  although  they  are  inartistically  applied,  and 
as  they  are  costly,  they  are  made  exceptions  in  contracts,  to  be 
furnished  by  the  employer,  not  by  the  contractor. 

I have  now  sufficiently  explained  all  that  I could  suggest  for 
the  avoidance  of  mistakes  in  stucco  work.  Next,  I shall  speak  of 
the  components  as  they  occur  to  me,  and  first  I shall  treat  of 
marble,  since  I spoke  of  lime  at  the  beginning. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MARBLE  FOR  USE  IN  STUCCO 

Marble  is  not  produced  everywhere  of  the  same  kind.  In 
some  places  the  lumps  are  found  to  contain  transparent  grains 
like  salt,  and  this  kind  when  crushed  and  ground  is  extremely 
serviceable  in  stucco  work.  In  places  where  this  is  not  found, 
the  broken  bits  of  marble  or  “chips,”  as  they  are  called,  which 
marble-workers  throw  down  as  they  work,  may  be  crushed  and 
ground  and  used  in  stucco  after  being  sifted.  In  still  other  places 


214 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


— for  example,  on  the  borderland  of  Magnesia  and  Ephesus  — 
there  are  places  where  it  can  be  dug  out  all  ready  to  use,  without 
the  need  of  grinding  or  sifting,  but  as  fine  as  any  that  is  crushed 
and  sifted  by  hand. 


CHAPTER  VII 

NATURAL  COLOURS 

As  for  colours,  some  are  natural  products  found  in  fixed  places, 
and  dug  up  there,  while  others  are  artificial  compounds  of  differ- 
ent substances  treated  and  mixed  in  proper  proportions  so  as  to 
be  equally  serviceable. 

1.  We  shall  first  set  forth  the  natural  colours  that  are  dug  up 
as  such,  like  yellow  ochre,  which  is  termed  &xPa  in  Greek.  This 
is  found  in  many  places,  including  Italy,  but  Attic,  which  was  the 
best,  is  not  now  to  be  had  because  in  the  times  when  there  were 
slaves  in  the  Athenian  silver  mines,  they  would  dig  galleries 
underground  in  order  to  find  the  silver.  Whenever  a vein  of 
ochre  was  found  there,  they  would  follow  it  up  like  silver,  and 
so  the  ancients  had  a fine  supply  of  it  to  use  in  the  polished  fin- 
ishings of  their  stucco  work. 

2.  Red  earths  are  found  in  abundance  in  many  places,  but  the 
best  in  only  a few,  for  instance  at  Sinope  in  Pontus,  in  Egypt,  in 
the  Balearic  islands  of  Spain,  as  well  as  in  Lemnos,  an  island  the 
enjoyment  of  whose  revenues  the  Senate  and  Roman  people 
granted  to  the  Athenians. 

3.  Paraetonium  white  gets  its  name  from  the  place  where  it  is 
dug  up.  The  same  is  the  case  with  Melian  white,  because  there  is 
said  to  be  a mine  of  it  in  Melos,  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Cyclades. 

4.  Green  chalk  is  found  in  numerous  places,  but  the  best  at 
Smyrna.  The  Greeks  call  it  OeoBoTelov , because  this  kind  of  chalk 
was  first  found  on  the  estate  of  a person  named  Theodotus. 

5.  Orpiment,  which  is  termed  apaevucov  in  Greek,  is  dug  up 
in  Pontus.  Sandarach,  in  many  places,  but  the  best  is  mined  in 
Pontus  close  by  the  river  Hypanis. 


Chap.  VHI]  CINNABAR  AND  QUICKSILVER 


215 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CINNABAR  AND  QUICKSILVER 

1.  I shall  now  proceed  to  explain  the  nature  of  cinnabar.  It 
is  said  that  it  was  first  found  in  the  Cilbian  country  belonging  to 
Ephesus,  and  both  it  and  its  properties  are  certainly  very  strange. 
First,  before  getting  to  the  vermilion  itself  by  methods  of  treat- 
ment, they  dig  out  what  is  called  the  clod,  an  ore  like  iron,  but 
rather  of  a reddish  colour  and  covered  with  a red  dust.  During 
the  digging  it  sheds,  under  the  blows  of  the  tools,  tear  after  tear 
of  quicksilver,  which  is  at  once  gathered  up  by  the  diggers. 

2.  When  these  clods  have  been  collected,  they  are  so  full  of 
moisture  that  they  are  thrown  into  an  oven  in  the  laboratory  to 
dry,  and  the  fumes  that  are  sent  up  from  them  by  the  heat  of 
the  fire  settle  down  on  the  floor  of  the  oven,  and  are  found  to  be 
quicksilver.  When  the  clods  are  taken  out,  the  drops  which  re- 
main are  so  small  that  they  cannot  be  gathered  up,  but  they 
are  swept  into  a vessel  of  water,  and  there  they  run  together  and 
combine  into  one.  Four  pints  of  it,  when  measured  and  weighed, 
will  be  found  to  be  one  hundred  pounds. 

3.  If  the  quicksilver  is  poured  into  a vessel,  and  a stone  weigh- 
ing one  hundred  pounds  is  laid  upon  it,  the  stone  swims  on  the 
surface,  and  cannot  depress  the  liquid,  nor  break  through,  nor 
separate  it.  If  we  remove  the  hundred  pound  weight,  and  put 
on  a scruple  of  gold,  it  will  not  swim,  but  will  sink  to  the  bottom 
of  its  own  accord.  Hence,  it  is  undeniable  that  the  gravity  of  a 
substance  depends  not  on  the  amount  of  its  weight,  but  on  its 
nature. 

4.  Quicksilver  is  a useful  thing  for  many  purposes.  For  in- 
stance, neither  silver  nor  copper  can  be  gilded  properly  without 
it.  And  when  gold  has  been  woven  into  a garment,  and  the  gar- 
ment becomes  worn  out  with  age  so  that  it  is  no  longer  respect- 
able to  use,  the  pieces  of  cloth  are  put  into  earthen  pots,  and 
burned  up  over  a fire.  The  ashes  are  then  thrown  into  water  and 


216 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


quicksilver  added  thereto.  This  attracts  all  the  bits  of  gold,  and 
makes  them  combine  with  itself.  The  water  is  then  poured  off, 
and  the  rest  emptied  into  a cloth  and  squeezed  in  the  hands, 
whereupon  the  quicksilver,  being  a liquid,  escapes  through  the 
loose  texture  of  the  cloth,  but  the  gold,  which  has  been  brought 
together  by  the  squeezing,  is  found  inside  in  a pure  state. 


CHAPTER  IX 

cinnabar  ( continued 0 

1.  I will  now  return  to  the  preparation  of  vermilion.  When  the 
lumps  of  ore  are  dry,  they  are  crushed  in  iron  mortars,  and  re- 
peatedly washed  and  heated  until  the  impurities  are  gone,  and 
the  colours  come.  When  the  cinnabar  has  given  up  its  quick- 
silver, and  thus  lost  the  natural  virtues  that  it  previously  had,  it 
becomes  soft  in  quality  and  its  powers  are  feeble. 

2.  Hence,  though  it  keeps  its  colour  perfectly  when  applied 
in  the  polished  stucco  finish  of  closed  apartments,  yet  in  open 
apartments,  such  as  peristyles  or  exedrae  or  other  places  of  the 
sort,  where  the  bright  rays  of  the  sun  and  moon  can  penetrate,  it 
is  spoiled  by  contact  with  them,  loses  the  strength  of  its  colour, 
and  turns  black.  Among  many  others,  the  secretary  Faberius, 
who  wished  to  have  his  house  on  the  Aventine  finished  in  elegant 
style,  applied  vermilion  to  all  the  walls  of  the  peristyle;  but 
after  thirty  days  they  turned  to  an  ugly  and  mottled  colour. 
He  therefore  made  a contract  to  have  other  colours  applied  in- 
stead of  vermilion. 

3.  But  anybody  who  is  more  particular,  and  who  wants  a pol- 
ished finish  of  vermilion  that  will  keep  its  proper  colour,  should, 
after  the  wall  has  been  polished  and  is  dry,  apply  with  a brush 
Pontic  wax  melted  over  a fire  and  mixed  with  a little  oil;  then 
after  this  he  should  bring  the  wax  to  a sweat  by  warming  it  and 
the  wall  at  close  quarters  with  charcoal  enclosed  in  an  iron  ves- 
sel; and  finally  he  should  smooth  it  all  off  by  rubbing  it  down  with 


217 


Chap.  X]  ARTIFICIAL  COLOURS.  BLACK 

a wax  candle  and  clean  linen  cloths,  just  as  naked  marble  statues 
are  treated. 

4.  This  process  is  termed  yavcoo-L?  in  Greek.  The  protecting 
coat  of  Pontic  wax  prevents  the  light  of  the  moon  and  the  rays 
of  the  sun  from  licking  up  and  drawing  the  colour  out  of  such 
polished  finishing. 

The  manufactories  which  were  once  at  the  mines  of  the  Ephe- 
sians have  now  been  transferred  to  Rome,  because  this  kind  of 
ore  was  later  discovered  in  Spain.  The  clods  are  brought  from 
the  mines  there,  and  treated  in  Rome  by  public  contractors. 
These  manufactories  are  between  the  temples  of  Flora  and 
Quirinus. 

5.  Cinnabar  is  adulterated  by  mixing  lime  with  it.  Hence, 
one  will  have  to  proceed  as  follows,  if  one  wishes  to  prove  that  it 
is  unadulterated.  Take  an  iron  plate,  put  the  cinnabar  upon  it, 
and  lay  it  on  the  fire  until  the  plate  gets  red  hot.  When  the  glow- 
ing heat  makes  the  colour  change  and  turn  black,  remove  the 
plate  from  the  fire,  and  if  the  cinnabar  when  cooled  returns  to  its 
former  colour,  it  will  be  proved  to  be  unadulterated;  but  if  it 
keeps  the  black  colour,  it  will  show  that  it  has  been  adulterated. 

6.  I have  now  said  all  that  I could  think  of  about  cinnabar. 
Malachite  green  is  brought  from  Macedonia,  and  is  dug  up  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  copper  mines.  The  names  Armenian  blue 
and  India  ink  show  in  what  places  these  substances  are  found. 


CHAPTER  X 

ARTIFICIAL  COLOURS.  BLACK 

1.  I shall  now  pass  to  those  substances  which  by  artificial 
treatment  are  made  to  change  their  composition,  and  to  take  on 
the  properties  of  colours;  and  first  I shall  treat  of  black,  the  use 
of  which  is  indispensable  in  many  works,  in  order  that  the  fixed 
technical  methods  for  the  preparation  of  that  compound  may  be 
known. 


218 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


2.  A place  is  built  like  a Laconicum,  and  nicely  finished  in 
marble,  smoothly  polished.  In  front  of  it,  a small  furnace  is  con- 
structed with  vents  into  the  Laconicum,  and  with  a stokehole 
that  can  be  very  carefully  closed  to  prevent  the  flames  from  es- 
caping and  being  wasted.  Resin  is  placed  in  the  furnace.  The 
force  of  the  fire  in  burning  it  compels  it  to  give  out  soot  into  the 
Laconicum  through  the  vents,  and  the  soot  sticks  to  the  walls 
and  the  curved  vaulting.  It  is  gathered  from  them,  and  some 
of  it  is  mixed  and  worked  with  gum  for  use  as  writing  ink, 
while  the  rest  is  mixed  with  size,  and  used  on  walls  by  fresco 
painters. 

3.  But  if  these  facilities  are  not  at  hand,  we  must  meet  the 
exigency  as  follows,  so  that  the  work  may  not  be  hindered  by 
tedious  delay.  Burn  shavings  and  splinters  of  pitch  pine,  and  when 
they  turn  to  charcoal,  put  them  out,  and  pound  them  in  a mortar 
with  size.  This  will  make  a pretty  black  for  fresco  painting. 

4.  Again,  if  the  lees  of  wine  are  dried  and  roasted  in  an  oven, 
and  then  ground  up  with  size  and  applied  to  a wall,  the  result  will 
be  a colour  even  more  delightful  than  ordinary  black;  and  the 
better  the  wine  of  which  it  is  made,  the  better  imitation  it  will 
give,  not  only  of  the  colour  of  ordinary  black,  but  even  of  that  of 
India  ink. 


CHAPTER  XI 

BLUE.  BURNT  OCHRE 

1.  Methods  of  making  blue  were  first  discovered  in  Alexan- 
dria, and  afterwards  Vestorius  set  up  the  making  of  it  at  Puz- 
zuoli.  The  method  of  obtaining  it  from  the  substances  of  which 
it  has  been  found  to  consist,  is  strange  enough.  Sand  and  the 
flowers  of  natron  are  brayed  together  so  finely  that  the  product 
is  like  meal,  and  copper  is  grated  by  means  of  coarse  files  over  the 
mixture,  like  sawdust,  to  form  a conglomerate.  Then  it  is  made 
into  balls  by  rolling  it  in  the  hands  and  thus  bound  together  for 
drying.  The  dry  balls  are  put  in  an  earthern  jar,  and  the  jars  in 


Chap.  XIII] 


PURPLE 


219 


an  oven.  As  soon  as  the  copper  and  the  sand  grow  hot  and  unite 
under  the  intensity  of  the  fire,  they  mutually  receive  each  other’s 
sweat,  relinquishing  their  peculiar  qualities,  and  having  lost 
their  properties  through  the  intensity  of  the  fire,  they  are  reduced 
to  a blue  colour. 

2.  Burnt  ochre,  which  is  very  serviceable  in  stucco  work,  is 
made  as  follows.  A clod  of  good  yellow  ochre  is  heated  to  a glow 
on  a fire.  It  is  then  quenched  in  vinegar,  and  the  result  is  a 
purple  colour. 


CHAPTER  XII 

WHITE  LEAD,  VERDIGRIS,  AND  ARTIFICIAL  SANDARACH 

1.  It  is  now  in  place  to  describe  the  preparation  of  white  lead 
and  of  verdigris,  which  with  us  is  called  “aeruca.”  In  Rhodes 
they  put  shavings  in  jars,  pour  vinegar  over  them,  and  lay  pieces 
of  lead  on  the  shavings;  then  they  cover  the  jars  with  lids  to  pre- 
vent evaporation.  After  a definite  time  they  open  them,  and  find 
that  the  pieces  of  lead  have  become  white  lead.  In  the  same  way 
they  put  in  plates  of  copper  and  make  verdigris,  which  is  called 
“aeruca.” 

2.  White  lead  on  being  heated  in  an  oven  changes  its  colour  on 
the  fire,  and  becomes  sandarach.  This  was  discovered  as  the  re- 
sult of  an  accidental  fire.  It  is  much  more  serviceable  than  the 
natural  sandarach  dug  up  in  mines. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

PURPLE 

1.  I shall  now  begin  to  speak  of  purple,  which  exceeds  all  the 
colours  that  have  so  far  been  mentioned  both  in  costliness  and 
in  the  superiority  of  its  delightful  effect.  It  is  obtained  from  a 
marine  shellfish,  from  which  is  made  the  purple  dye,  which  is  as 
wonderful  to  the  careful  observer  as  anything  else  in  nature; 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VII 


for  it  has  not  the  same  shade  in  all  the  places  where  it  is  found, 
but  is  naturally  qualified  by  the  course  of  the  sun. 

2.  That  which  is  found  in  Pontus  and  Gaul  is  black,  because 
those  countries  are  nearest  to  the  north.  As  one  passes  on  from 
north  to  west,  it  is  found  of  a bluish  shade.  Due  east  and  west, 
what  is  found  is  of  a violet  shade.  That  which  is  obtained  in 
southern  countries  is  naturally  red  in  quality,  and  therefore  this 
is  found  in  the  island  of  Rhodes  and  in  other  such  countries  that 
are  nearest  to  the  course  of  the  sun. 

3.  After  the  shellfish  have  been  gathered,  they  are  broken  up 
with  iron  tools,  the  blows  of  which  drive  out  the  purple  fluid  like 
a flood  of  tears,  and  then  it  is  prepared  by  braying  it  in  mortars. 
It  is  called  “ostrum  ” because  it  is  taken  from  the  shells  of  marine 
shellfish.  On  account  of  its  saltness,  it  soon  dries  up  unless  it  has 
honey  poured  over  it. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

SUBSTITUTES  FOR  PURPLE,  YELLOW  OCHRE,  MALACHITE  GREEN, 

AND  INDIGO 

1.  Purple  colours  are  also  manufactured  by  dyeing  chalk  with 
madder  root  and  with  hysginum.  Other  colours  are  made  from 
flowers.  Thus,  when  fresco  painters  wish  to  imitate  Attic  yellow 
ochre,  they  put  dried  violets  into  a vessel  of  water,  and  heat  them 
over  a fire;  then,  when  the  mixture  is  ready,  they  pour  it  onto  a 
linen  cloth,  and  squeeze  it  out  with  the  hands,  catching  the  water 
which  is  now  coloured  by  the  violets,  in  a mortar.  Into  this  they 
pour  chalk  and  bray  it,  obtaining  the  colour  of  Attic  yellow  ochre. 

2.  They  make  a fine  purple  colour  by  treating  bilberry  in  the 
same  way  and  mixing  it  with  milk.  Those  who  cannot  use 
malachite  green  on  account  of  its  dearness,  dye  blue  with  the 
plant  called  dyer’s  weed,  and  thus  obtain  a most  vivid  green. 
This  is  called  dyer’s  malachite  green.  Again,  for  want  of  indigo, 
they  dye  Selinusian  or  anularian  chalk  with  woad,  which  the 
Greeks  call  laram,  and  make  an  imitation  of  indigo. 


Chap.  XIV] 


SUBSTITUTES 


221 


3.  In  this  book  I have  written  down,  so  far  as  I could  recall 
them,  the  methods  and  means  of  attaining  durability  in  polished 
finishings,  how  pictures  that  are  appropriate  should  be  made,  and 
also  the  natural  qualities  of  all  the  colours.  And  so,  having  pre- 
scribed in  seven  books  the  suitable  principles  which  should  gov- 
ern the  construction  of  all  kinds  of  buildings,  I shall  treat  in  the 
next  of  water,  showing  how  it  may  be  found  in  places  where  it  is 
wanting,  by  what  method  it  may  be  conducted,  and  by  what 
means  its  wholesomeness  and  fitness  may  be  tested. 


BOOK  VIII 


BOOK  VIII 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  Among  the  Seven  Sages,  Thales  of  Miletus  pronounced  for 
water  as  the  primordial  element  in  all  things;  Heraclitus,  for  fire; 
the  priests  of  the  Magi,  for  water  and  fire;  Euripides,  a pupil  of 
Anaxagoras,  and  called  by  the  Athenians  “the  philosopher  of 
the  stage,”  for  air  and  earth.  Earth,  he  held,  was  impregnated 
by  the  rains  of  heaven  and,  thus  conceiving,  brought  forth  the 
young  of  mankind  and  of  all  the  living  creatures  in  the  world; 
whatever  is  sprung  from  her  goes  back  to  her  again  when  the 
compelling  force  of  time  brings  about  a dissolution;  and  what- 
ever is  born  of  the  air  returns  in  the  same  way  to  the  regions  of 
the  sky;  nothing  suffers  annihilation,  but  at  dissolution  there  is  a 
change,  and  things  fall  back  to  the  essential  element  in  which 
they  were  before.  But  Pythagoras,  Empedocles,  Epicharmus, 
and  other  physicists  and  philosophers  have  set  forth  that  the 
primordial  elements  are  four  in  number:  air,  fire,  earth,  and 
water;  and  that  it  is  from  their  coherence  to  one  another  under 
the  moulding  power  of  nature  that  the  qualities  of  things  are 
produced  according  to  different  classes. 

2.  And,  in  fact,  we  see  not  only  that  all  which  comes  to  birth  is 
produced  by  them,  but  also  that  nothing  can  be  nourished  with- 
out their  influence,  nor  grow,  nor  be  preserved.  The  body,  for 
example,  can  have  no  life  without  the  flow  of  the  breath  to  and 
fro,  that  is,  unless  an  abundance  of  air  flows  in,  causing  dilations 
and  contractions  in  regular  succession.  Without  the  right  pro- 
portion of  heat,  the  body  will  lack  vitality,  will  not  be  well  set 
up,  and  will  not  properly  digest  strong  food.  Again,  without  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  to  nourish  the  bodily  frame,  it  will  be  enfeebled, 
and  so  lose  its  admixture  of  the  earthy  element. 

3.  Finally,  without  the  influence  of  moisture,  living  creatures 
will  be  bloodless  and,  having  the  liquid  element  sucked  out  of 


226 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VIII 


them,  will  wither  away.  Accordingly  the  divine  intelligence  has 
not  made  what  is  really  indispensable  for  man  either  hard  to  get 
or  costly,  like  pearls,  gold,  silver,  and  so  forth,  the  lack  of  which 
neither  our  body  nor  our  nature  feels,  but  has  spread  abroad, 
ready  to  hand  through  all  the  world,  the  things  without  which 
the  life  of  mortals  cannot  be  maintained.  Thus,  to  take  exam- 
ples, suppose  there  is  a deficiency  of  breath  in  the  body,  the  air, 
to  which  is  assigned  the  function  of  making  up  the  deficiency, 
performs  that  service.  To  supply  heat,  the  mighty  sun  is  ready, 
and  the  invention  of  fire  makes  life  more  secure.  Then  again,  the 
fruits  of  the  earth,  satisfying  our  desires  with  a more  than  suffi- 
cient store  of  food  stuffs,  support  and  maintain  living  beings  with 
regular  nourishment.  Finally,  water,  not  merely  supplying  drink 
but  filling  an  infinite  number  of  practical  needs,  does  us  services 
which  make  us  grateful  because  it  is  gratis. 

4.  Hence,  too,  those  who  are  clothed  in  priesthoods  of  the 
Egyptian  orders  declare  that  all  things  depend  upon  the  power 
of  the  liquid  element.  So,  when  the  waterpot  is  brought  back 
to  precinct  and  temple  with  water,  in  accordance  with  the  holy 
rite,  they  throw  themselves  upon  the  ground  and,  raising  their 
hands  to  heaven,  thank  the  divine  benevolence  for  its  invention. 

Therefore,  since  it  is  held  by  physicists  and  philosophers  and 
priests  that  all  things  depend  upon  the  power  of  water,  I have 
thought  that,  as  in  the  former  seven  books  the  rules  for  buildings 
have  been  set  forth,  in  this  I ought  to  write  on  the  methods  of 
finding  water,  on  those  special  merits  which  are  due  to  the  quali- 
ties of  localities,  on  the  ways  of  conducting  it,  and  how  it  may 
be  tested  in  advance.  For  it  is  the  chief  requisite  for  life,  for  hap- 
piness, and  for  everyday  use. 


CHAPTER  I 


HOW  TO  FIND  WATER 

1.  This  will  be  easier  if  there  are  open  springs  of  running  water. 
But  if  there  are  no  springs  which  gush  forth,  we  must  search  for 
them  underground,  and  conduct  them  together.  The  following 
test  should  be  applied.  Before  sunrise,  lie  down  flat  in  the  place 
where  the  search  is  to  be  made,  and  placing  the  chin  on  the  earth 
and  supporting  it  there,  take  a look  out  over  the  country.  In 
this  way  the  sight  will  not  range  higher  than  it  ought,  the  chin 
being  immovable,  but  will  range  over  a definitely  limited  height 
on  the  same  level  through  the  country.  Then,  dig  in  places  where 
vapours  are  seen  curling  and  rising  up  into  the  air.  This  sign 
cannot  show  itself  in  a dry  spot. 

2.  Searchers  for  water  must  also  study  the  nature  of  different 
localities;  for  those  in  which  it  is  found  are  well  defined.  In  clay 
the  supply  is  poor,  meagre,  and  at  no  great  depth.  It  will  not 
have  the  best  taste.  In  fine  gravel  the  supply  is  also  poor,  but  it 
will  be  found  at  a greater  depth.  It  will  be  muddy  and  not  sweet. 
In  black  earth  some  slight  drippings  and  drops  are  found  that 
gather  from  the  storms  of  winter  and  settle  down  in  compact, 
hard  places.  They  have  the  best  taste.  Among  pebbles  the  veins 
found  are  moderate,  and  not  to  be  depended  upon.  These,  too, 
are  extremely  sweet.  In  coarse  grained  gravel  and  carbuncular 
sand  the  supply  is  surer  and  more  lasting,  and  it  has  a good  taste. 
In  red  tufa  it  is  copious  and  good,  if  it  does  not  run  down  through 
the  fissures  and  escape.  At  the  foot  of  mountains  and  in  lava  it 
is  more  plentiful  and  abundant,  and  here  it  is  also  colder  and  more 
wholesome.  In  flat  countries  the  springs  are  salt,  heavy-bodied, 
tepid,  and  ill-flavoured,  excepting  those  which  run  underground 
from  mountains,  and  burst  forth  in  the  middle  of  a plain,  where, 
if  protected  by  the  shade  of  trees,  their  taste  is  equal  to  that  of 
mountain  springs. 


228 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VIII 


3.  In  the  kinds  of  soil  described  above,  signs  will  be  found 
growing,  such  as  slender  rushes,  wild  willows,  alders,  agnus 
castus  trees,  reeds,  ivy,  and  other  plants  of  the  same  sort  that 
cannot  spring  up  of  themselves  without  moisture.  But  they  are 
also  accustomed  to  grow  in  depressions  which,  being  lower  than 
the  rest  of  the  country,  receive  water  from  the  rains  and  the 
surrounding  fields  during  the  winter,  and  keep  it  for  a compara- 
tively long  time  on  account  of  their  holding  power.  These  must 
not  be  trusted,  but  the  search  must  be  made  in  districts  and  soils, 
yet  not  in  depressions,  where  those  signs  are  found  growing  not 
from  seed,  but  springing  up  naturally  of  themselves. 

4.  If  the  indications  mentioned  appear  in  such  places,  the  fol- 
lowing test  should  be  applied.  Dig  out  a place  not  less  than 
three  feet  square  and  five  feet  deep,  and  put  into  it  about  sunset 
a bronze  or  leaden  bowl  or  basin,  whichever  is  at  hand.  Smear  the 
inside  with  oil,  lay  it  upside  down,  and  cover  the  top  of  the  exca- 
vation with  reeds  or  green  boughs,  throwing  earth  upon  them. 
Next  day  uncover  it,  and  if  there  are  drops  and  drippings  in  the 
vessel,  the  place  will  contain  water. 

5.  Again,  if  a vessel  made  of  unbaked  clay  be  put  in  the  hole, 
and  covered  in  the  same  way,  it  will  be  wet  when  uncovered,  and 
already  beginning  to  go  to  pieces  from  dampness,  if  the  place 
contains  water.  If  a fleece  of  wool  is  placed  in  the  excavation, 
and  water  can  be  wrung  out  of  it  on  the  following  day,  it  will 
show  that  the  place  has  a supply.  Further,  if  a lamp  be  trimmed, 
filled  with  oil,  lighted,  and  put  in  that  place  and  covered  up,  and 
if  on  the  next  day  it  is  not  burnt  out,  but  still  contains  some  re- 
mains of  oil  and  wick,  and  is  itself  found  to  be  damp,  it  will  indi- 
cate that  the  place  contains  water;  for  all  heat  attracts  moisture. 
Again,  if  a fire  is  made  in  that  place,  and  if  the  ground,  when  thor- 
oughly warmed  and  burned,  sends  up  a misty  vapour  from  its 
surface,  the  place  will  contain  water. 

6.  After  applying  these  tests  and  finding  the  signs  de- 
scribed above,  a well  must  next  be  sunk  in  the  place,  and  if  a 
spring  of  water  is  found,  more  wells  must  be  dug  thereabouts, 


RAINWATER 


Chap.  II] 


229 


and  all  conducted  by  means  of  subterranean  channels  into 
one  place. 

The  mountains  and  districts  with  a northern  exposure  are  the 
best  spots  in  which  to  search,  for  the  reason  that  springs  are 
sweeter,  more  wholesome,  and  more  abundant  when  found  there. 
Such  places  face  away  from  the  sun’s  course,  and  the  trees  are 
thick  in  them,  and  the  mountains,  being  themselves  full  of  woods, 
cast  shadows  of  their  own,  preventing  the  rays  of  the  sun  from 
striking  uninterruptedly  upon  the  ground  and  drying  up  the 
moisture. 

7.  The  valleys  among  the  mountains  receive  the  rains  most 
abundantly,  and  on  account  of  the  thick  woods  the  snow  is 
kept  in  them  longer  by  the  shade  of  the  trees  and  mountains. 
Afterwards,  on  melting,  it  filters  through  the  fissures  in  the  ground, 
and  thus  reaches  the  very  foot  of  the  mountains,  from  which 
gushing  springs  come  belching  out. 

But  in  flat  countries,  on  the  contrary,  a good  supply  cannot  be 
had.  For  however  great  it  is,  it  cannot  be  wholesome,  because, 
as  there  is  no  shade  in  the  way,  the  intense  force  of  the  sun  draws 
up  and  carries  off  the  moisture  from  the  flat  plains  with  its  heat, 
and  if  any  water  shows  itself  there,  the  lightest  and  purest  and  the 
delicately  wholesome  part  of  it  is  summoned  away  by  the  air,  and 
dispersed  to  the  skies,  while  the  heaviest  and  the  hard  and  un- 
pleasant parts  are  left  in  springs  that  are  in  flat  places. 


CHAPTER  II 

RAINWATER 

1.  Rainwater  has,  therefore,  more  wholesome  qualities,  be- 
cause it  is  drawn  from  the  lightest  and  most  delicately  pure  parts 
of  all  the  springs,  and  then,  after  being  filtered  through  the  agi- 
tated air,  it  is  liquefied  by  storms  and  so  returns  to  the  earth.  And 
rainfall  is  not  abundant  in  the  plains,  but  rather  on  the  moun- 
tains or  close  to  mountains,  for  the  reason  that  the  vapour  which 


230 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VIII 


is  set  in  motion  at  sunrise  in  the  morning,  leaves  the  earth, 
and  drives  the  air  before  it  through  the  heaven  in  whatever 
direction  it  inclines;  then,  when  once  in  motion,  it  has  currents 
of  air  rushing  after  it,  on  account  of  the  void  which  it  leaves 
behind. 

2.  This  air,  driving  the  vapour  everywhere  as  it  rushes  along, 
produces  gales  and  constantly  increasing  currents  by  its  mighty 
blasts.  Wherever  the  winds  carry  the  vapour  which  rolls  in  masses 
from  springs,  rivers,  marshes,  and  the  sea,  it  is  brought  together 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  drawn  off,  and  carried  upward  in  the 
form  of  clouds;  then  these  clouds  are  supported  by  the  current 
of  air  until  they  come  to  mountains,  where  they  are  broken  up 
from  the  shock  of  the  collision  and  the  gales,  turn  into  water  on 
account  of  their  own  fulness  and  weight,  and  in  that  form  are 
dispersed  upon  the  earth. 

3.  That  vapour,  mists,  and  humidity  come  forth  from  the  earth, 
seems  due  to  the  reason  that  it  contains  burning  heat,  mighty 
currents  of  air,  intense  cold,  and  a great  quantity  of  water.  So,  as 
soon  as  the  earth,  which  has  cooled  off  during  the  night,  is  struck 
by  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun,  and  the  winds  begin  to  blow  while 
it  is  yet  dark,  mists  begin  to  rise  upward  from  damp  places. 
That  the  air  when  thoroughly  heated  by  the  sun  can  make  va- 
pours rise  rolling  up  from  the  earth,  may  be  seen  by  means  of  an 
example  drawn  from  baths. 

4.  Of  course  there  can  be  no  springs  above  the  vaultings  of 
hot  bathrooms,  but  the  atmosphere  in  such  rooms,  becoming  well 
warmed  by  the  hot  air  from  the  furnaces,  seizes  upon  the  water 
on  the  floors,  and  takes  it  up  to  the  curved  vaultings  and  holds 
it  up  there,  for  the  reason  that  hot  vapour  always  pushes  upwards. 
At  first  it  does  not  let  the  moisture  go,  for  the  quantity  is  small ; 
but  as  soon  as  it  has  collected  a considerable  amount,  it  cannot 
hold  it  up,  on  account  of  the  weight,  but  sprinkles  it  upon  the  heads 
of  the  bathers.  In  the  same  way,  when  the  atmospheric  air  feels 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  it  draws  the  moisture  from  all  about,  causes 
it  to  rise,  and  gathers  it  into  clouds.  For  the  earth  gives  out 


Chap.  II]  RAINWATER  231 

moisture  under  the  influence  of  heat  just  as  a man’s  heated  body 
emits  sweat. 

5.  The  winds  are  witnesses  to  this  fact.  Those  that  are  pro- 
duced and  come  from  the  coolest  directions,  the  north  and  north- 
east winds,  blow  in  blasts  that  are  rarefied  by  the  great  dryness 
in  the  atmosphere,  but  the  south  wind  and  the  others  that  assail 
us  from  the  direction  of  the  sun’s  course  are  very  damp,  and  al- 
ways bring  rain,  because  they  reach  us  from  warm  regions  after 
being  well  heated  there,  and  licking  up  and  carrying  off  the  mois- 
ture from  the  whole  country,  they  pour  it  out  on  the  regions  in 
the  north. 

6.  That  this  is  the  state  of  the  case  may  be  proved  by  the 
sources  of  rivers,  the  majority  and  the  longest  of  which,  as 
drawn  and  described  in  geographies  of  the  world,  are  found  to 
rise  in  the  north.  First  in  India,  the  Ganges  and  Indus  spring 
from  the  Caucasus;  in  Syria,  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates;  in  Pon- 
tus  in  Asia,  the  Dnieper,  Bug,  and  Don;  in  Colchis,  the  Phasis;  in 
Gaul,  the  Rhone;  in  Celtica,  the  Rhine;  on  this  side  of  the  Alps, 
the  Timavo  and  Po;  in  Italy,  the  Tiber;  in  Maurusia,  which  we 
call  Mauretania,  the  Dyris,  rising  in  the  Atlas  range  and  running 
westerly  to  Lake  Heptagonus,  where  it  changes  its  name  and  is 
called  Agger;  then  from  Lake  Heptabolus  it  runs  at  the  base 
of  barren  mountains,  flowing  southerly  and  emptying  into  the 
marsh  called 1 ...  It  surrounds  Meroe,  which  is  a kingdom  in 
southern  Ethiopia,  and  from  the  marsh  grounds  there,  winding 
round  by  the  rivers  Astansoba  and  Astoboa  and  a great  many 
others,  it  passes  through  the  mountains  to  the  Cataract,  and 
from  there  it  dashes  down,  and  passes  to  the  north  between  Ele- 
phantis  and  Syene  and  the  plains  of  Thebes  into  Egypt,  where 
it  is  called  the  Nile. 

7.  That  the  source  of  the  Nile  is  in  Mauretania  is  known  prin- 
cipally from  the  fact  that  there  are  other  springs  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Atlas  range  flowing  into  the  ocean  to  the  west,  and 
that  ichneumons,  crocodiles,  and  other  animals  and  fishes  of 

1 Here  something  is  lost,  as  also  in  chapter  III,  sections  5 and  6. 


VITRUVIUS 


232 


[Book  VIII 


like  nature  are  found  there,  although  there  are  no  hippopota- 
muses. 

8.  Therefore,  since  in  descriptions  of  the  world  it  appears  that 
all  rivers  of  any  size  flow  from  the  north,  and  since  in  the  plains 
of  Africa,  which  are  exposed  to  the  course  of  the  sun  in  the  south, 
the  moisture  is  deeply  hidden,  springs  not  common,  and  rivers 
rare,  it  follows  that  the  sources  of  springs  which  lie  to  the  north  or 
northeast  are  much  better,  unless  they  hit  upon  a place  which  is 
full  of  sulphur,  alum,  or  asphalt.  In  this  case  they  are  completely 
changed,  and  flow  in  springs  which  have  a bad  smell  and  taste, 
whether  the  water  is  hot  or  cold. 

9.  The  fact  is,  heat  is  not  at  all  a property  of  water,  but  when  a 
stream  of  cold  water  happens  upon  a hot  place,  it  boils  up,  and 
issues  through  the  fissures  and  out  of  the  ground  in  a state  of 
heat.  This  cannot  last  very  long,  but  in  a short  time  the  water 
becomes  cold.  If  it  were  naturally  hot,  it  would  not  cool  off  and 
lose  its  heat.  Its  taste,  however,  and  its  smell  and  colour  are  not 
restored,  because  it  has  become  saturated  and  compounded  with 
these  qualities  on  account  of  the  rarity  of  its  nature. 


CHAPTER  III 

VARIOUS  PROPERTIES  OF  DIFFERENT  WATERS 

1.  There  are,  however,  some  hot  springs  that  supply  water 
of  the  best  taste,  which  is  so  delightful  to  drink  that  one  does  not 
think  with  regret  of  the  Fountain  of  the  Muses  or  the  Marcian 
aqueduct.  These  hot  springs  are  produced  naturally,  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner.  When  fire  is  kindled  down  beneath  in  alum  or 
asphalt  or  sulphur,  it  makes  the  earth  immediately  over  it  very 
hot,  and  emits  a glowing  heat  to  the  parts  still  farther  above  it, 
so  that  if  there  are  any  springs  of  sweet  water  found  in  the  upper 
strata,  they  begin  to  boil  in  their  fissures  when  they  are  met 
by  this  heat,  and  so  they  run  out  with  their  taste  unimpaired. 

2.  And  there  are  some  cold  springs  that  have  a bad  smell  and 


Chap.  Ill] 


PROPERTIES  OF  WATERS 


233 


taste.  They  rise  deep  down  in  the  lower  strata,  cross  places  which 
are  on  fire,  and  then  are  cooled  by  running  a long  distance  through 
the  earth,  coming  out  above  ground  with  their  taste,  smell,  and 
colour  spoiled;  as,  for  instance,  the  river  Albula  on  the  road  to 
Tivoli  and  the  cold  springs  of  Ardea,  which  have  the  same  smell 
and  are  called  sulphur  springs,  and  others  in  similar  places.  Al- 
though they  are  cold,  yet  at  first  sight  they  seem  to  be  hot  for 
the  reason  that  when  they  happen  upon  a burning  spot  deep 
down  below,  the  liquid  and  the  fire  meet,  and  with  a great  noise 
at  the  collision  they  take  in  strong  currents  of  air,  and  thus,  swol- 
len by  a quantity  of  compressed  wind,  they  come  out  at  the 
springs  in  a constant  state  of  ebullition.  When  such  springs 
are  not  open  but  confined  by  rocks,  the  force  of  the  air  in  them 
drives  them  up  through  the  narrow  fissures  to  the  summits  of 
hills. 

3.  Consequently  those  who  think  that  they  have  excavated 
sources  of  springs  at  the  height  of  such  hills  find  themselves  mis- 
taken when  they  open  up  their  excavations.  Suppose  a bronze 
vase  filled  not  to  the  very  lips,  but  containing  two  thirds  of  the 
quantity  of  water  which  forms  its  capacity,  and  with  a cover 
placed  upon  it.  When  it  is  subjected  to  a very  hot  fire,  the  water 
must  become  thoroughly  heated,  and  from  the  rarity  of  its  nature 
it  greatly  expands  by  taking  in  the  heat,  so  that  it  not  only  fills 
the  vase  but  raises  its  cover  by  means  of  the  currents  of  air  in  it, 
and  swells  and  runs  over.  But  if  you  take  the  cover  off,  the  expand- 
ing forces  are  released  into  the  open  air,  and  the  water  settles 
down  again  to  its  proper  level.  So  it  is  with  the  sources  of  springs. 
As  long  as  they  are  confined  in  narrow  channels,  the  currents  of 
air  in  the  water  rush  up  in  bubbles  to  the  top,  but  as  soon  as  they 
are  given  a wider  outlet,  they  lose  their  air  on  account  of  the 
rarity  peculiar  to  water,  and  so  settle  down  and  resume  their 
proper  level. 

4.  Every  hot  spring  has  healing  properties  because  it  has  been 
boiled  with  foreign  substances,  and  thus  acquires  a new  useful 
quality.  For  example,  sulphur  springs  cure  pains  in  the  sinews, 


234 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  Vm 


by  warming  up  and  burning  out  the  corrupt  humours  of  the 
body  by  their  heat.  Aluminous  springs,  used  in  the  treatment  of 
the  limbs  when  enfeebled  by  paralysis  or  the  stroke  of  any  such 
malady,  introduce  warmth  through  the  open  pores,  counter- 
acting the  chill  by  the  opposite  effect  of  their  heat,  and  thus 
equably  restoring  the  limbs  to  their  former  condition.  Asphaltic 
springs,  taken  as  purges,  cure  internal  maladies. 

5.  There  is  also  a kind  of  cold  water  containing  natron,  found 
for  instance  at  Penne  in  the  Vestine  country,  at  Cutiliae,  and  at 
other  similar  places.  It  is  taken  as  a purge  and  in  passing  through 
the  bowels  reduces  scrofulous  tumours.  Copious  springs  are 
found  where  there  are  mines  of  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and 
the  like,  but  they  are  very  harmful.  For  they  contain,  like  hot 
springs,  sulphur,  alum,  asphalt,  . . . and  when  it  passes  into 
the  body  in  the  form  of  drink,  and  spreading  through  the  veins 
reaches  the  sinews  and  joints,  it  expands  and  hardens  them. 
Hence  the  sinews,  swelling  with  this  expansion,  are  contracted 
in  length  and  so  give  men  the  cramp  or  the  gout,  for  the  reason 
that  their  veins  are  saturated  with  very  hard,  dense,  and  cold 
substances. 

6.  There  is  also  a sort  of  water  which,  since  it  contains  . . . 
that  are  not  perfectly  clear,  and  it  floats  like  a flower  on  the  sur- 
face, in  colour  like  purple  glass.  This  may  be  seen  particularly 
in  Athens,  where  there  are  aqueducts  from  places  and  springs 
of  that  sort  leading  to  the  city  and  the  port  of  Piraeus,  from  which 
nobody  drinks,  for  the  reason  mentioned,  but  they  use  them  for 
bathing  and  so  forth,  and  drink  from  wells,  thus  avoiding  their 
unwholesomeness.  At  Troezen  it  cannot  be  avoided,  because 
no  other  kind  of  water  at  all  is  found,  except  what  the  Cibdeli 
furnish,  and  so  in  that  city  all  or  most  of  the  people  have  dis- 
eases of  the  feet.  At  the  city  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia  is  a river  named 
Cydnus,  in  which  gouty  people  soak  their  legs  and  find  relief 
from  pain. 

7.  There  are  also  many  other  kinds  of  water  which  have  pe- 
culiar properties;  for  example,  the  river  Himera  in  Sicily,  which, 


Chap.  Ill] 


PROPERTIES  OF  WATERS 


235 


after  leaving  its  source,  is  divided  into  two  branches.  One  flows  in 
the  direction  of  Etruria  and  has  an  exceedingly  sweet  taste  on  ac- 
count of  a sweet  juice  in  the  soil  through  which  it  runs;  the  other 
runs  through  a country  where  there  are  salt  pits,  and  so  it  has  a 
salt  taste.  At  Paraetonium,  and  on  the  road  to  Ammon,  and  at 
Casius  in  Egypt  there  are  marshy  lakes  which  are  so  salt  that 
they  have  a crust  of  salt  on  the  surface.  In  many  other  places 
there  are  springs  and  rivers  and  lakes  which  are  necessarily  ren- 
dered salt  because  they  run  through  salt  pits. 

8.  Others  flow  through  such  greasy  veins  of  soil  that  they  are 
overspread  with  oil  when  they  burst  out  as  springs : for  example, 
at  Soli,  a town  in  Cilicia,  the  river  named  Liparis,  in  which  swim- 
mers or  bathers  get  anointed  merely  by  the  water.  Likewise  there 
is  a lake  in  Ethiopia  which  anoints  people  who  swim  in  it,  and 
one  in  India  which  emits  a great  quantity  of  oil  when  the  sky  is 
clear.  At  Carthage  is  a spring  that  has  oil  swimming  on  its  surface 
and  smelling  like  sawdust  from  citrus  wood,  with  which  oil  sheep 
are  anointed.  In  Zacynthus  and  about  Dyrrachium  and  Apol- 
lonia  are  springs  which  discharge  a great  quantity  of  pitch  with 
their  water.  In  Babylon,  a lake  of  very  great  extent,  called  Lake 
Asphaltitis,  has  liquid  asphalt  swimming  on  its  surface,  with 
which  asphalt  and  with  burnt  brick  Semiramis  built  the  wall 
surrounding  Babylon,  At  Jaffa  in  Syria  and  among  the  Nomads 
in  Arabia,  are  lakes  of  enormous  size  that  yield  very  large  masses 
of  asphalt,  which  are  carried  off  by  the  inhabitants  thereabouts. 

9.  There  is  nothing  marvellous  in  this,  for  quarries  of  hard 
asphalt  are  numerous  there.  So,  when  a quantity  of  water  bursts 
its  way  through  the  asphaltic  soil,  it  carries  asphalt  out  with  it, 
and  after  passing  out  of  the  ground,  the  water  is  separated  and 
so  rejects  the  asphalt  from  itself.  Again,  in  Cappadocia  on  the 
road  from  Mazaca  to  Tyana,  there  is  an  extensive  lake  into  which 
if  a part  of  a reed  or  of  some  other  thing  be  plunged,  and  with- 
drawn the  next  day,  it  will  be  found  that  the  part  thus  withdrawn 
has  turned  into  stone,  while  the  part  which  remained  above  water 
retains  its  original  nature. 


236 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VIII 


10.  In  the  same  way,  at  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia  there  is  a multi- 
tude of  boiling  hot  springs  from  which  water  is  let  into  ditches 
surrounding  gardens  and  vineyards,  and  this  water  becomes  an 
incrustation  of  stone  at  the  end  of  a year.  Hence,  every  year 
they  construct  banks  of  earth  to  the  right  and  left,  let  in 
the  water,  and  thus  out  of  these  incrustations  make  walls  for 
their  fields.  This  seems  due  to  natural  causes,  since  there  is 
a juice  having  a coagulating  potency  like  rennet  underground 
in  those  spots  and  in  that  country.  When  this  potency  appears 
above  ground  mingled  with  spring  water,  the  mixture  cannot 
but  be  hardened  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  air,  as  appears  in 
salt  pits. 

11.  There  are  also  springs  which  issue  exceedingly  bitter,  ow- 
ing to  a bitter  juice  in  the  soil,  such  as  the  river  Hypanis  in  Pon- 
tus.  For  about  forty  miles  from  its  source  its  taste  is  very  sweet; 
then  it  reaches  a point  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  from 
its  mouth,  where  it  is  joined  by  a very  small  brook.  This  runs 
into  it,  and  at  once  makes  that  vast  river  bitter,  for  the  reason 
that  the  water  of  the  brook  becomes  bitter  by  flowing  through 
the  kind  of  soil  and  the  veins  in  which  there  are  sandarach 
mines. 

12.  These  waters  are  given  their  different  flavours  by  the  prop- 
erties of  the  soil,  as  is  also  seen  in  the  case  of  fruits.  If  the  roots 
of  trees,  vines,  or  other  plants  did  not  produce  their  fruits  by 
drawing  juices  from  soil  of  different  properties,  the  flowers  of 
all  would  be  of  the  same  kind  in  all  places  and  districts.  But  we 
find  in  the  island  of  Lesbos  the  protropum  wine,  in  Maeonia,  the 
catacecaumenites,  in  Lydia,  the  Tmolian,  in  Sicily,  the  Mamer- 
tine,  in  Campania,  the  Falernian,  between  Terracina  and  Fondi, 
the  Caecuban,  and  wines  of  countless  varieties  and  qualities  pro- 
duced in  many  other  places.  This  could  not  be  the  case,  were  it 
not  that  the  juice  of  the  soil,  introduced  with  its  proper  flavours 
into  the  roots,  feeds  the  stem,  and,  mounting  along  it  to  the  top, 
imparts  a flavour  to  the  fruit  which  is  peculiar  to  its  situation 
and  kind. 


Chap.  Ill] 


PROPERTIES  OF  WATERS 


237 


13.  If  soils  were  not  different  and  unlike  in  their  kinds  of 
juices,  Syria  and  Arabia  would  not  be  the  only  places  in  which 
the  reeds,  rushes,  and  all  the  plants  are  aromatic,  and  in  which 
there  are  trees  bearing  frankincense  or  yielding  pepper  berries 
and  lumps  of  myrrh,  nor  would  assafoetida  be  found  only  in  the 
stalks  growing  in  Cyrene,  but  everything  would  be  of  the  same 
sort,  and  produced  in  the  soil  of  all  countries.  It  is  the  inclination 
of  the  firmament  and  the  force  of  the  sun,  as  it  draws  nearer  or 
recedes  in  its  course,  that  make  these  diversities  such  as  we  find 
them  in  different  countries  and  places,  through  the  nature  of  the 
soil  and  its  juices.  And  not  only  in  the  case  of  the  things  men- 
tioned, but  also  in  that  of  sheep  and  cattle.  These  diversities 
would  not  exist  if  the  different  properties  of  soils  and  their  juices 
were  not  qualified  by  the  power  of  the  sun. 

14.  For  instance,  there  are  in  Boeotia  the  rivers  Cephisus  and 
Melas,  in  Lucania,  the  Crathis,  in  Troy,  the  Xanthus,  and  cer- 
tain springs  in  the  country  of  the  Clazomenians,  the  Erythraeans, 
and  the  Laodiceans.  When  sheep  are  ready  for  breeding  at  the 
proper  season  of  the  year,  they  are  driven  every  day  during  that 
season  to  those  rivers  to  drink,  and  the  result  is  that,  however 
white  they  may  be,  they  beget  in  some  places  whity-brown 
lambs,  in  other  places  gray,  and  in  others  black  as  a raven.  Thus, 
the  peculiar  character  of  the  liquid,  entering  their  body,  produces 
in  each  case  the  quality  with  which  it  is  imbued.  Hence,  it  is  said 
that  the  people  of  Ilium  gave  the  river  Xanthus  its  name  because 
reddish  cattle  and  whity-brown  sheep  are  found  in  the  plains  of 
Troy  near  that  river. 

15.  Deadly  kinds  of  water  are  also  found,  which  run  through 
soil  containing  a noxious  juice,  and  take  in  its  poisonous  quality : 
for  instance,  there  is  said  to  have  been  a spring  at  Terracina, 
called  the  spring  of  Neptune,  which  caused  the  death  of  those 
who  thoughtlessly  drank  from  it.  In  consequence,  it  is  said  that 
the  ancients  stopped  it  up.  At  Chrobs  in  Thrace  there  is  a lake 
which  causes  the  death  not  only  of  those  who  drink  of  it,  but 
also  of  those  who  bathe  in  it.  In  Thessaly  there  is  a gushing 


238 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VIII 


fount  of  which  sheep  never  taste,  nor  does  any  sort  of  creature 
draw  near  to  it,  and  close  by  this  fount  there  is  a tree  with 
crimson  flowers. 

16.  In  Macedonia,  at  the  place  where  Euripides  is  buried,  two 
streams  approach  from  the  right  and  left  of  his  tomb,  and  unite. 
By  one  of  these,  travellers  are  in  the  habit  of  lying  down  and 
taking  luncheon,  because  its  water  is  good ; but  nobody  goes  near 
the  stream  on  the  other  side  of  the  tomb,  because  its  water  is  said 
to  be  death-dealing.  In  Arcadia  there  is  a tract  of  land  called 
Nonacris,  which  has  extremely  cold  water  trickling  from  a rock 
in  the  mountains.  This  water  is  called  “Water  of  the  Styx,”  and 
no  vessel,  whether  of  silver,  bronze,  or  iron,  can  stand  it  without 
flying  to  pieces  and  breaking  up.  Nothing  but  a mule’s  hoof  can 
keep  it  together  and  hold  it,  and  tradition  says  that  it  was  thus 
conveyed  by  Antipater  through  his  son  lollas  into  the  province 
where  Alexander  was  staying,  and  that  the  king  was  killed  by 
him  with  this  water. 

17.  Among  the  Alps  in  the  kingdom  of  Cottius  there  is  a water 
those  who  taste  of  which  immediately  fall  lifeless.  In  the  Falis- 
can  country  on  the  Via  Campana  in  the  Campus  Cornetus  is  a 
grove  in  which  rises  a spring,  and  there  the  bones  of  birds  and 
of  lizards  and  other  reptiles  are  seen  lying. 

Some  springs  are  acid,  as  at  Lyncestus  and  in  Italy  in  the  Velian 
country,  at  Teano  in  Campania,  and  in  many  other  places.  These 
when  used  as  drinks  have  the  power  of  breaking  up  stones  in  the 
bladder,  which  form  in  the  human  body. 

18.  This  seems  to  be  due  to  natural  causes,  as  there  is  a sharp 
and  acid  juice  contained  in  the  soil  there,  which  imparts  a sharp- 
ness to  these  springs  as  they  issue  from  it;  and  so,  on  entering  the 
body,  they  disperse  all  the  deposits  and  concretions,  due  to  the 
use  of  other  waters,  which  they  find  in  the  body.  Why  such  things 
are  broken  up  by  acid  waters  we  can  see  from  the  following  ex- 
periments. If  an  egg  is  left  for  some  time  in  vinegar,  its  shell  will 
soften  and  dissolve.  Again,  if  a piece  of  lead,  which  is  very  flex- 
ible and  heavy,  is  put  in  a vase  and  vinegar  poured  over  it,  and 


Chap.  Ill]  PROPERTIES  OF  WATERS  239 

the  vase  covered  and  sealed  up,  the  lead  will  be  dissolved  and 
turn  into  white  lead. 

19.  On  the  same  principle,  copper,  which  is  naturally  more 
solid,  will  disperse  and  turn  into  verdigris  if  similarly  treated. 
So,  also,  a pearl.  Even  rocks  of  lava,  which  neither  iron  nor  fire 
alone  can  dissolve,  split  into  pieces  and  dissolve  when  heated  with 
fire  and  then  sprinkled  with  vinegar.  Hence,  since  we  see  these 
things  taking  place  before  our  very  eyes,  we  can  infer  that  on  the 
same  principle  even  patients  with  the  stone  may,  in  the  nature 
of  things,  be  cured  in  like  manner  by  means  of  acid  waters,  on 
account  of  the  sharpness  of  the  potion. 

20.  Then  there  are  springs  in  which  wine  seems  to  be  mingled, 
like  the  one  in  Paphlagonia,  the  water  of  which  intoxicates  those 
who  drink  of  the  spring  alone  without  wine.  The  Aequians  in 
Italy  and  the  tribe  of  the  Medulli  in  the  Alps  have  a kind  of 
water  which  causes  swellings  in  the  throats  of  those  who  drink  it. 

21.  In  Arcadia  is  the  well-known  town  of  Clitor,  in  whose  ter- 
ritory is  a cave  with  running  water  which  makes  people  who  drink 
of  it  abstemious.  At  this  spring,  there  is  an  epigram  in  Greek 
verses  inscribed  on  stone  to  the  effect  that  the  water  is  unsuitable 
for  bathing,  and  also  injurious  to  vines,  because  it  was  at  this 
spring  that  Melampus  cleansed  the  daughters  of  Proetus  of  their 
madness  by  sacrificial  rites,  and  restored  those  maidens  to  their 
former  sound  state  of  mind.  The  inscription  runs  as  written  below : 

Swain,  if  by  noontide  thirst  thou  art  opprest 

When  with  thy  flocks  to  Clei tor’s  bounds  thou’st  hied, 

Take  from  this  fount  a draught,  and  grant  a rest 
To  all  thy  goats  the  water  nymphs  beside. 

But  bathe  not  in ’t  when  full  of  drunken  cheer, 

Lest  the  mere  vapour  may  bring  thee  to  bane; 

Shun  my  vine-hating  spring  — Melampus  here 

From  madness  once  washed  Proetus’  daughters  sane, 

And  all  th’  offscouring  here  did  hide,  when  they 
From  Argos  came  to  rugged  Arcady. 

22.  In  the  island  of  Zea  is  a spring  of  which  those  who  thought- 
lessly drink  lose  their  understanding,  and  an  epigram  is  cut  there 


240 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VIII 


to  the  effect  that  a draught  from  the  spring  is  delightful,  but  that 
he  who  drinks  will  become  dull  as  a stone.  These  are  the  verses : 

This  stone  sweet  streams  of  cooling  drink  doth  drip. 

But  stone  his  wits  become  who  doth  it  sip. 

23.  At  Susa,  the  capital  of  the  Persian  kingdom,  there  is  a little 
spring,  those  who  drink  of  which  lose  their  teeth.  An  epigram  is 
written  there,  the  significance  of  which  is  to  this  effect,  that  the 
water  is  excellent  for  bathing,  but  that  taken  as  drink,  it  knocks 
out  the  teeth  by  the  roots.  The  verses  of  this  epigram  are,  in 
Greek,  as  follows: 

Stranger,  you  see  the  waters  of  a spring 
In  which  ’t  is  safe  for  men  their  hands  to  lave; 

But  if  the  weedy  basin  entering 
You  drink  of  its  unpalatable  wave, 

Your  grinders  tumble  out  that  self-same  day 
From  jaws  that  orphaned  sockets  will  display. 

24.  There  are  also  in  some  places  springs  which  have  the  pecu- 
liarity of  giving  fine  singing  voices  to  the  natives,  as  at  Tarsus  in 
Magnesia  and  in  other  countries  of  that  kind.  Then  there  is 
Zama,  an  African  city,  which  King  Juba  fortified  by  enclosing  it 
with  a double  wall,  and  he  established  his  royal  residence  there. 
Twenty  miles  from  it  is  the  walled  town  of  Ismuc,  the  lands 
belonging  to  which  are  marked  off  by  a marvellous  kind  of  bound- 
ary. For  although  Africa  was  the  mother  and  nurse  of  wild  ani- 
mals, particularly  serpents,  yet  not  one  is  ever  born  in  the  lands 
of  that  town,  and  if  ever  one  is  imported  and  put  there,  it  dies  at 
once;  and  not  only  this,  but  if  soil  is  taken  from  this  spot  to 
another  place,  the  same  is  true  there.  It  is  said  that  this  kind  of 
soil  is  also  found  in  the  Balearic  Islands.  The  above  mentioned 
soil  has  a still  more  wonderful  property,  of  which  I have  learned 
in  the  following  way. 

25.  Caius  Julius,  Masinissa’s  son,  who  owned  all  the  lands 
about  that  town,  served  with  Caesar  the  father.  He  was  once  my 
guest.  Hence,  in  our  daily  intercourse,  we  naturally  talked  of 


Chap.  Ill] 


PROPERTIES  OF  WATERS 


241 


literary  subjects.  During  a conversation  between  us  on  the  effi- 
cacy of  water  and  its  qualities,  he  stated  that  there  were  springs 
in  that  country  of  a kind  which  caused  people  born  there  to  have 
fine  singing  voices,  and  that  consequently  they  always  sent 
abroad  and  bought  handsome  lads  and  ripe  girls,  and  mated 
them,  so  that  their  progeny  might  have  not  only  fine  voices  but 
also  beautiful  forms. 

26.  This  great  variety  in  different  things  is  a distribution  due 
to  nature,  for  even  the  human  body,  which  consists  in  part  of  the 
earthy,  contains  many  kinds  of  juices,  such  as  blood,  milk,  sweat, 
urine,  and  tears.  If  all  this  variation  of  flavours  is  found  in  a 
small  portion  of  the  earthy,  we  should  not  be  surprised  to  find  in 
the  great  earth  itself  countless  varieties  of  juices,  through  the 
veins  of  which  the  water  runs,  and  becomes  saturated  with  them 
before  reaching  the  outlets  of  springs.  In  this  way,  different 
varieties  of  springs  of  peculiar  kinds  are  produced,  on  account  of 
diversity  of  situation,  characteristics  of  country,  and  dissimilar 
properties  of  soils. 

27.  Some  of  these  things  I have  seen  for  myself,  others  I 
have  found  written  in  Greek  books,  the  authorities  for  these 
writings  being  Theophrastus,  Timaeus,  Posidonius,  Hegesias, 
Herodotus,  Aristides,  and  Metrodorus.  These  men  with  much 
attention  and  endless  pains  showed  by  their  writings  that  the 
peculiarities  of  sites,  the  properties  of  waters,  and  the  charac- 
teristics of  countries  are  conditioned  by  the  inclination  of  the 
heaven.  Following  their  investigations,  I have  set  down  in  this 
book  what  I thought  sufficient  about  different  kinds  of  water,  to 
make  it  easier,  by  means  of  these  directions,  for  people  to  pick 
out  springs  from  which  they  can  conduct  the  water  in  aqueducts 
for  the  use  of  cities  and  towns. 

28.  For  it  is  obvious  that  nothing  in  the  world  is  so  necessary 
for  use  as  water,  seeing  that  any  living  creature  can,  if  deprived 
of  grain  or  fruit  or  meat  or  fish,  or  any  one  of  them,  support  life 
by  using  other  foodstuffs;  but  without  water  no  animal  nor  any 
proper  food  can  be  produced,  kept  in  good  condition,  or  prepared. 


242 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VIII 


Consequently  we  must  take  great  care  and  pains  in  searching  for 
springs  and  selecting  them,  keeping  in  view  the  health  of  man- 
kind. 

CHAPTER  IV 

TESTS  OF  GOOD  WATER 

1.  Springs  should  be  tested  and  proved  in  advance  in  the 
following  ways.  If  they  run  free  and  open,  inspect  and  observe 
the  physique  of  the  people  who  dwell  in  the  vicinity  before  begin- 
ning to  conduct  the  water,  and  if  their  frames  are  strong,  their 
complexions  fresh,  legs  sound,  and  eyes  clear,  the  springs  de- 
serve complete  approval.  If  it  is  a spring  just  dug  out,  its  water 
is  excellent  if  it  can  be  sprinkled  into  a Corinthian  vase  or  into 
any  other  sort  made  of  good  bronze  without  leaving  a spot  on  it. 
Again,  if  such  water  is  boiled  in  a bronze  cauldron,  afterwards 
left  for  a time,  and  then  poured  off  without  sand  or  mud  being 
found  at  the  bottom  of  the  cauldron,  that  water  also  will  have 
proved  its  excellence. 

2.  And  if  green  vegetables  cook  quickly  when  put  into  a vessel 
of  such  water  and  set  over  a fire,  it  will  be  a proof  that  the  water 
is  good  and  wholesome.  Likewise  if  the  water  in  the  spring  is  itself 
limpid  and  clear,  if  there  is  no  growth  of  moss  or  reeds  where  it 
spreads  and  flows,  and  if  its  bed  is  not  polluted  by  filth  of  any  sort 
but  has  a clean  appearance,  these  signs  indicate  that  the  water 
is  light  and  wholesome  in  the  highest  degree. 


CHAPTER  V 

LEVELLING  AND  LEVELLING  INSTRUMENTS 

1.  I shall  now  treat  of  the  ways  in  which  water  should  be 
conducted  to  dwellings  and  cities.  First  comes  the  method  of 
taking  the  level.  Levelling  is  done  either  with  dioptrae,  or  with 
water  levels,  or  with  the  chorobates,  but  it  is  done  with  greater 


Chap.  V] 


LEVELLING  INSTRUMENTS 


243 


accuracy  by  means  of  the  chorobates,  because  dioptrae  and  levels 
are  deceptive.  The  chorobates  is  a straightedge  about  twenty 
feet  long.  At  the  extremities  it  has  legs,  made  exactly  alike  and 
jointed  on  perpendicularly  to  the  extremities  of  the  straightedge, 
and  also  crosspieces,  fastened  by  tenons,  connecting  the  straight- 
edge and  the  legs.  These  crosspieces  have  vertical  lines  drawn 
upon  them,  and  there  are  plumblines  hanging  from  the  straight- 
edge over  each  of  the  lines.  When  the  straightedge  is  in  po- 
sition, and  the  plumblines  strike  both  the  lines  alike  and  at  the 
same  time,  they  show  that  the  instrument  stands  level. 

2.  But  if  the  wind  interposes,  and  constant  motion  prevents 
any  definite  indication  by  the  lines,  then  have  a groove  on  the 
upper  side,  five  feet  long,  one  digit  wide,  and  a digit  and  a half 
deep,  and  pour  water  into  it.  If  the  water  comes  up  uniformly 
to  the  rims  of  the  groove,  it  will  be  known  that  the  instrument  is 
level.  When  the  level  is  thus  found  by  means  of  the  chorobates, 
the  amount  of  fall  will  also  be  known. 

3.  Perhaps  some  reader  of  the  works  of  Archimedes  will  say 
that  there  can  be  no  true  levelling  by  means  of  water,  because 
he  holds  that  water  has  not  a level  surface,  but  is  of  a spheri- 
cal form,  having  its  centre  at  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Still, 
whether  water  is  plane  or  spherical,  it  necessarily  follows  that 
when  the  straightedge  is  level,  it  will  support  the  water  evenly 
at  its  extremities  on  the  right  and  left,  but  that  if  it  slopes 
down  at  one  end,  the  water  at  the  higher  end  will  not  reach  the 
rim  of  the  groove  in  the  straightedge.  For  though  the  water, 
wherever  poured  in,  must  have  a swelling  and  curvature  in  the 
centre,  yet  the  extremities  on  the  right  and  left  must  be  on  a level 
with  each  other.  A picture  of  the  chorobates  will  be  found  drawn 
at  the  end  of  the  book.  If  there  is  to  be  a considerable  fall,  the 
conducting  of  the  water  will  be  comparatively  easy.  But  if  the 
course  is  broken  by  depressions,  we  must  have  recourse  to  sub- 
structures. 


244 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VIII 


CHAPTER  VI 

AQUEDUCTS,  WELLS,  AND  CISTERNS 

1.  There  are  three  methods  of  conducting  water,  in  channels 
through  masonry  conduits,  or  in  lead  pipes,  or  in  pipes  of  baked 
clay.  If  in  conduits,  let  the  masonry  be  as  solid  as  possible,  and 
let  the  bed  of  the  channel  have  a gradient  of  not  less  than  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  for  every  hundred  feet,  and  let  the  masonry 
structure  be  arched  over,  so  that  the  sun  may  not  strike  the  water 
at  all.  When  it  has  reached  the  city,  build  a reservoir  with  a dis- 
tribution tank  in  three  compartments  connected  with  the  res- 
ervoir to  receive  the  water,  and  let  the  reservoir  have  three  pipes, 
one  for  each  of  the  connecting  tanks,  so  that  when  the  water 
runs  over  from  the  tanks  at  the  ends,  it  may  run  into  the  one 
between  them. 

2.  From  this  central  tank,  pipes  will  be  laid  to  all  the  basins 
and  fountains;  from  the  second  tank,  to  baths,  so  that  they  may 
yield  an  annual  income  to  the  state;  and  from  the  third,  to  priv- 
ate houses,  so  that  water  for  public  use  will  not  run  short;  for 
people  will  be  unable  to  divert  it  if  they  have  only  their  own 
supplies  from  headquarters.  This  is  the  reason  why  I have  made 
these  divisions,  and  also  in  order  that  individuals  who  take  water 
into  their  houses  may  by  their  taxes  help  to  maintain  the  con- 
ducting of  the  water  by  the  contractors. 

3.  If,  however,  there  are  hills  between  the  city  and  the  source 
of  supply,  subterranean  channels  must  be  dug,  and  brought  to  a 
level  at  the  gradient  mentioned  above.  If  the  bed  is  of  tufa  or 
other  stone,  let  the  channel  be  cut  in  it;  but  if  it  is  of  earth  or 
sand,  there  must  be  vaulted  masonry  walls  for  the  channel,  and 
the  water  should  thus  be  conducted,  with  shafts  built  at  every 
two  hundred  and  forty  feet. 

4.  But  if  the  water  is  to  be  conducted  in  lead  pipes,  first  build 
a reservoir  at  the  source;  then,  let  the  pipes  have  an  interior  area 
corresponding  to  the  amount  of  water,  and  lay  these  pipes  from 


245 


Chap.  VI]  AQUEDUCTS  AND  CISTERNS 

this  reservoir  to  the  reservoir  which  is  inside  the  city  walls.  The 
pipes  should  be  cast  in  lengths  of  at  least  ten  feet.  If  they  are 
hundreds,  they  should  weigh  1200  pounds  each  length;  if  eight- 
ies, 960  pounds;  if  fifties,  600  pounds;  forties,  480  pounds; 
thirties,  360  pounds;  twenties,  240  pounds;  fifteens,  180  pounds; 
tens,  120  pounds;  eights,  100  pounds;  fives,  60  pounds.  The  pipes 
get  the  names  of  their  sizes  from  the  width  of  the  plates,  taken 
in  digits,  before  they  are  rolled  into  tubes.  Thus,  when  a pipe 
is  made  from  a plate  fifty  digits  in  width,  it  will  be  called  a 
“fifty,”  and  so  on  with  the  rest. 

5.  The  conducting  of  the  water  through  lead  pipes  is  to  be 
managed  as  follows.  If  there  is  a regular  fall  from  the  source  to 
the  city,  without  any  intervening  hills  that  are  high  enough  to 
interrupt  it,  but  with  depressions  in  it,  then  we  must  build  sub- 
structures to  bring  it  up  to  the  level  as  in  the  case  of  channels  and 
conduits.  If  the  distance  round  such  depressions  is  not  great, 
the  water  may  be  carried  round  circuitously;  but  if  the  valleys 
are  extensive,  the  course  will  be  directed  down  their  slope.  On 
reaching  the  bottom,  a low  substructure  is  built  so  that  the  level 
there  may  continue  as  long  as  possible.  This  will  form  the 
“venter,”  termed  KoCkia  by  the  Greeks.  Then,  on  reaching  the 
hill  on  the  opposite  side,  the  length  of  the  venter  makes  the  water 
slow  in  swelling  up  to  rise  to  the  top  of  the  hill. 

6.  But  if  there  is  no  such  venter  made  in  the  valleys,  nor  any 
substructure  built  on  a level,  but  merely  an  elbow,  the  water 
will  break  out,  and  burst  the  joints  of  the  pipes.  And  in  the  ven- 
ter, water  cushions  must  be  constructed  to  relieve  the  pressure 
of  the  air.  Thus,  those  who  have  to  conduct  water  through  lead 
pipes  will  do  it  most  successfully  on  these  principles,  because  its 
descents,  circuits,  venters,  and  risings  can  be  managed  in  this 
way,  when  the  level  of  the  fall  from  the  sources  to  the  city  is  once 
obtained. 

7.  It  is  also  not  ineffectual  to  build  reservoirs  at  intervals  of 
24,000  feet,  so  that  if  a break  occurs  anywhere,  it  will  not  com- 
pletely ruin  the  whole  work,  and  the  place  where  it  has  occurred 


246 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  VIII 


can  easily  be  found;  but  such  reservoirs  should  not  be  built  at  a 
descent,  nor  in  the  plane  of  a venter,  nor  at  risings,  nor  any- 
where in  valleys,  but  only  where  there  is  an  unbroken  level. 

8.  But  if  we  wish  to  spend  less  money,  we  must  proceed  as 
follows.  Clay  pipes  with  a skin  at  least  two  digits  thick  should 
be  made,  but  these  pipes  should  be  tongued  at  one  end  so  that 
they  can  fit  into  and  join  one  another.  Their  joints  must  be  coated 
with  quicklime  mixed  with  oil,  and  at  the  angles  of  the  level  of 
the  venter  a piece  of  red  tufa  stone,  with  a hole  bored  through  it, 
must  be  placed  right  at  the  elbow,  so  that  the  last  length  of  pipe 
used  in  the  descent  is  jointed  into  the  stone,  and  also  the  first 
length  of  the  level  of  the  venter;  similarly  at  the  hill  on  the  oppo- 
site side  the  last  length  of  the  level  of  the  venter  should  stick  into 
the  hole  in  the  red  tufa,  and  the  first  of  the  rise  should  be  simi- 
larly jointed  into  it. 

9.  The  level  of  the  pipes  being  thus  adjusted,  they  will  not  be 
sprung  out  of  place  by  the  force  generated  at  the  descent  and  at 
the  rising.  For  a strong  current  of  air  is  generated  in  an  aque- 
duct which  bursts  its  way  even  through  stones  unless  the  water  is 
let  in  slowly  and  sparingly  from  the  source  at  first,  and  checked 
at  the  elbows  or  turns  by  bands,  or  by  the  weight  of  sand  ballast. 
All  the  other  arrangements  should  be  made  as  in  the  case  of  lead 
pipes.  And  ashes  are  to  be  put  in  beforehand  when  the  water  is 
let  in  from  the  source  for  the  first  time,  so  that  if  any  of  the  joints 
have  not  been  sufficiently  coated,  they  may  be  coated  with  ashes. 

10.  Clay  pipes  for  conducting  water  have  the  following  ad- 
vantages. In  the  first  place,  in  construction:  — if  anything  hap- 
pens to  them,  anybody  can  repair  the  damage.  Secondly,  water 
from  clay  pipes  is  much  more  wholesome  than  that  which  is  con- 
ducted through  lead  pipes,  because  lead  is  found  to  be  harmful 
for  the  reason  that  white  lead  is  derived  from  it,  and  this  is  said 
to  be  hurtful  to  the  human  system.  Hence,  if  what  is  produced 
from  it  is  harmful,  no  doubt  the  thing  itself  is  not  wholesome. 

11.  This  we  can  exemplify  from  plumbers,  since  in  them  the 
natural  colour  of  the  body  is  replaced  by  a deep  pallor.  For  when 


247 


Chap.  VI]  AQUEDUCTS  AND  CISTERNS 

lead  is  smelted  in  casting,  the  fumes  from  it  settle  upon  their 
members,  and  day  after  day  burn  out  and  take  away  all  the  vir- 
tues of  the  blood  from  their  limbs.  Hence,  water  ought  by  no 
means  to  be  conducted  in  lead  pipes,  if  we  want  to  have  it  whole- 
some. That  the  taste  is  better  when  it  comes  from  clay  pipes  may 
be  proved  by  everyday  life,  for  though  our  tables  are  loaded  with 
silver  vessels,  yet  everybody  uses  earthenware  for  the  sake  of 
purity  of  taste. 

12.  But  if  there  are  no  springs  from  which  we  can  construct 
aqueducts,  it  is  necessary  to  dig  wells.  Now  in  the  digging  of  wells 
we  must  not  disdain  reflection,  but  must  devote  much  acuteness 
and  skill  to  the  consideration  of  the  natural  principles  of  things, 
because  the  earth  contains  many  various  substances  in  itself;  for 
like  everything  else,  it  is  composed  of  the  four  elements.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  itself  earthy,  and  of  moisture  it  contains  springs 
of  water,  also  heat,  which  produces  sulphur,  alum,  and  asphalt; 
and  finally,  it  contains  great  currents  of  air,  which,  coming  up  in 
a pregnant  state  through  the  porous  fissures  to  the  places  where 
wells  are  being  dug,  and  finding  men  engaged  in  digging  there, 
stop  up  the  breath  of  life  in  their  nostrils  by  the  natural  strength 
of  the  exhalation.  So  those  who  do  not  quickly  escape  from  the 
spot,  are  killed  there. 

IS.  To  guard  against  this,  we  must  proceed  as  follows.  Let  down 
a lighted  lamp,  and  if  it  keeps  on  burning,  a man  may  make  the 
descent  without  danger.  But  if  the  light  is  put  out  by  the  strength 
of  the  exhalation,  then  dig  air  shafts  beside  the  well  on  the  right 
and  left.  Thus  the  vapours  will  be  carried  off  by  the  air  shafts  as 
if  through  nostrils.  When  these  are  finished  and  we  come  to  the 
water,  then  a wall  should  be  built  round  the  well  without  stop- 
ping up  the  vein. 

14.  But  if  the  ground  is  hard,  or  if  the  veins  lie  too  deep,  the 
water  supply  must  be  obtained  from  roofs  or  higher  ground,  and 
collected  in  cisterns  of  “signinum  work.”  Signinum  work  is  made 
as  follows.  In  the  first  place,  procure  the  cleanest  and  sharpest 
sand,  break  up  lava  into  bits  of  not  more  than  a pound  in  weight, 


248 


VITRUVIUS 


^[Book  VIII 


and  mix  the  sand  in  a mortar  trough  with  the  strongest  lime  in 
the  proportion  of  five  parts  of  sand  to  two  of  lime.  The  trench 
for  the  signinum  work,  down  to  the  level  of  the  proposed  depth 
of  the  cistern,  should  be  beaten  with  wooden  beetles  covered  with 
iron. 

15.  Then  after  having  beaten  the  walls,  let  all  the  earth  be- 
tween them  be  cleared  out  to  a level  with  the  very  bottom  of  the 
walls.  Having  evened  this  off,  let  the  ground  be  beaten  to  the 
proper  density.  If  such  constructions  are  in  two  compartments 
or  in  three  so  as  to  insure  clearing  by  changing  from  one  to  an- 
other, they  will  make  the  water  much  more  wholesome  and 
sweeter  to  use.  For  it  will  become  more  limpid,  and  keep  its 
taste  without  any  smell,  if  the  mud  has  somewhere  to  settle; 
otherwise  it  will  be  necessary  to  clear  it  by  adding  salt. 

In  this  book  I have  put  what  I could  about  the  merits  and  va- 
rieties of  water,  its  usefulness,  and  the  ways  in  which  it  should 
be  conducted  and  tested ; in  the  next  I shall  write  about  the  sub- 
ject of  dialling  and  the  principles  of  timepieces. 


BOOK  IX 


BOOK  IX 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  The  ancestors  of  the  Greeks  have  appointed  such  great 
honours  for  the  famous  athletes  who  are  victorious  at  the  Olym- 
pian, Pythian,  Isthmian,  and  Nemean  games,  that  they  are  not 
only  greeted  with  applause  as  they  stand  with  palm  and  crown  at 
the  meeting  itself,  but  even  on  returning  to  their  several  states 
in  the  triumph  of  victory,  they  ride  into  their  cities  and  to  their 
fathers’  houses  in  four-horse  chariots,  and  enjoy  fixed  revenues 
for  life  at  the  public  expense.  When  I think  of  this,  I am  amazed 
that  the  same  honours  and  even  greater  are  not  bestowed  upon 
those  authors  whose  boundless  services  are  performed  for  all 
time  and  for  all  nations.  This  would  have  been  a practice  all  the 
more  worth  establishing,  because  in  the  case  of  athletes  it  is 
merely  their  own  bodily  frame  that  is  strengthened  by  their 
training,  whereas  in  the  case  of  authors  it  is  the  mind,  and  not 
only  their  own  but  also  man’s  in  general,  by  the  doctrines  laid 
down  in  their  books  for  the  acquiring  of  knowledge  and  the 
sharpening  of  the  intellect. 

2.  What  does  it  signify  to  mankind  that  Milo  of  Croton  and 
other  victors  of  his  class  were  invincible?  Nothing,  save  that  in 
their  lifetime  they  were  famous  among  their  countrymen.  But 
the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras,  Democritus,  Plato,  and  Aristotle, 
and  the  daily  life  of  other  learned  men,  spent  in  constant  in- 
dustry, yield  fresh  and  rich  fruit,  not  only  to  their  own  country- 
men, but  also  to  all  nations.  And  they  who  from  their  tender 
years  are  filled  with  the  plenteous  learning  which  this  fruit 
affords,  attain  to  the  highest  capacity  of  knowledge,  and  can 
introduce  into  their  states  civilized  ways,  impartial  justice, 
and  laws,  things  without  which  no  state  can  be  sound. 

3.  Since,  therefore,  these  great  benefits  to  individuals  and  to 
communities  are  due  to  the  wisdom  of  authors,  I think  that  not 


252 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IX 


only  should  palms  and  crowns  be  bestowed  upon  them,  but  that 
they  should  even  be  granted  triumphs,  and  judged  worthy  of 
being  consecrated  in  the  dwellings  of  the  gods. 

Of  their  many  discoveries  which  have  been  useful  for  the  de- 
velopment of  human  life,  I will  cite  a few  examples.  On  review- 
ing these,  people  will  admit  that  honours  ought  of  necessity  to 
be  bestowed  upon  them. 

4.  First  of  all,  among  the  many  very  useful  theorems  of  Plato, 
I will  cite  one  as  demonstrated  by  him.  Suppose  there  is  a place 
or  a field  in  the  form  of  a square  and  we  are  required  to  double 
it.  This  has  to  be  effected  by  means  of  lines  correctly  drawn,  for 
it  will  take  a kind  of  calculation  not  to  be  made  by  means  of  mere 
multiplication.  The  following  is  the  demonstration.  A square 
place  ten  feet  long  and  ten  feet  wide  gives  an  area  of  one  hun- 
dred feet.  Now  if  it  is  required  to  double  the  square,  and  to  make 
one  of  two  hundred  feet,  we  must  ask  how  long  will  be  the  side 
of  that  square  so  as  to  get  from  this  the  two  hundred  feet  corres- 
ponding to  the  doubling  of  the  area.  Nobody  can  find  this  by 
means  of  arithmetic.  For  if  we  take  fourteen,  multiplication  will 
give  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  feet;  if  fifteen,  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet. 

5.  Therefore,  since  this  is  inexplicable  by  arithmetic,  let  a 
diagonal  line  be  drawn  from  angle  to  angle  of  that  square  of  ten 
feet  in  length  and  width,  dividing  it  into  two  triangles  of  equal 
size,  each  fifty  feet  in  area.  Taking  this  diagonal  line  as  the  length, 
describe  another  square.  Thus  we  shall  have  in  the  larger  square 
four  triangles  of  the  same  size  and  the  same  number  of  feet  as  the 
two  of  fifty  feet  each  which  were  formed  by  the  diagonal  line  in 
the  smaller  square.  In  this  way  Plato  demonstrated  the  doubling 
by  means  of  lines,  as  the  figure  appended  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page  will  show. 

6.  Then  again,  Pythagoras  showed  that  a right  angle  can  be 
formed  without  the  contrivances  of  the  artisan.  Thus,  the 
result  which  carpenters  reach  very  laboriously,  but  scarcely  to 
exactness,  with  their  squares,  can  be  demonstrated  to  perfec- 


INTRODUCTION 


253 


tion  from  the  reasoning  and  methods  of  his  teaching.  If  we 
take  three  rules,  one  three  feet,  the  second  four  feet,  and  the 
third  five  feet  in  length,  and  join  these  rules  together  with  their 
tips  touching  each  other  so  as  to  make  a triangular  figure,  they 
will  form  a right  angle.  Now  if  a square  be  described  on  the 
length  of  each  one  of  these  rules,  the  square  on  the  side  of  three 
feet  in  length  will  have  an  area  of  nine  feet;  of  four  feet,  six- 
teen; of  five,  twenty-five. 

7.  Thus  the  area  in  number  of  feet  made  up  of  the  two  squares 
on  the  sides  three  and  four  feet  in  length  is  equalled  by  that  of 
the  one  square  described  on  the  side  of  five.  When  Pythagoras 
discovered  this  fact,  he  had  no  doubt  that  the  Muses  had  guided 
him  in  the  discovery,  and  it  is  said  that  he  very  gratefully  offered 
sacrifice  to  them. 

This  theorem  affords  a useful  means  of  measuring  many  things, 
and  it  is  particularly  serviceable  in  the  building  of  staircases  in 
buildings,  so  that  the  steps  may  be  at  the  proper  levels. 

8.  Suppose  the  height  of  the  story,  from  the  flooring  above 
to  the  ground  below,  to  be  divided  into  three  parts.  Five  of  these 
will  give  the  right  length  for  the  stringers  of  the  stairway.  Let 
four  parts,  each  equal  to  one  of  the  three  composing  the  height 
between  the  upper  story  and  the  ground,  be  set  off  from  the  per- 
pendicular, and  there  fix  the  lower  ends  of  the  stringers.  In  this 
manner  the  steps  and  the  stairway  itself  will  be  properly  placed. 
A figure  of  this  also  will  be  found  appended  below. 

9.  In  the  case  of  Archimedes,  although  he  made  many  wonder- 
ful discoveries  of  diverse  kinds,  yet  of  them  all,  the  following,  which 
I shall  relate,  seems  to  have  been  the  result  of  a boundless  in- 
genuity. Hiero,  after  gaining  the  royal  power  in  Syracuse,  re- 
solved, as  a consequence  of  his  successful  exploits,  to  place  in  a 
certain  temple  a golden  crown  which  he  had  vowed  to  the  immor- 
tal gods.  He  contracted  for  its  making  at  a fixed  price,  and 
weighed  out  a precise  amount  of  gold  to  the  contractor.  At  the 
appointed  time  the  latter  delivered  to  the  king’s  satisfaction  an 
exquisitely  finished  piece  of  handiwork,  and  it  appeared  that  in 


254  VITRUVIUS  [Book  IX 

weight  the  crown  corresponded  precisely  to  what  the  gold  had 
weighed. 

10.  But  afterwards  a charge  was  made  that  gold  had  been  ab- 
stracted and  an  equivalent  weight  of  silver  had  been  added  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  crown.  Hiero,  thinking  it  an  outrage  that  he 
had  been  tricked,  and  yet  not  knowing  how  to  detect  the  theft,  re- 
quested Archimedes  to  consider  the  matter.  The  latter,  while  the 
case  was  still  on  his  mind,  happened  to  go  to  the  bath,  and  on 
getting  into  a tub  observed  that  the  more  his  body  sank  into  it 
the  more  water  ran  out  over  the  tub.  As  this  pointed  out  the  way 
to  explain  the  case  in  question,  without  a moment’s  delay,  and 
transported  with  joy,  he  jumped  out  of  the  tub  and  rushed  home 
naked,  crying  with  a loud  voice  that  he  had  found  what  he  was 
seeking;  for  as  he  ran  he  shouted  repeatedly  in  Greek,  “ Evpy/ca, 

1 1 9 9 

evpTj/ca, 

11.  Taking  this  as  the  beginning  of  his  discovery,  it  is  said  that 
he  made  two  masses  of  the  same  weight  as  the  crown,  one  of  gold 
and  the  other  of  silver.  After  making  them,  he  filled  a large  vessel 
with  water  to  the  very  brim,  and  dropped  the  mass  of  silver  into 
it.  As  much  water  ran  out  as  was  equal  in  bulk  to  that  of  the  sil- 
ver sunk  in  the  vessel.  Then,  taking  out  the  mass,  he  poured  back 
the  lost  quantity  of  water,  using  a pint  measure,  until  it  was 
level  with  the  brim  as  it  had  been  before.  Thus  he  found  the 
weight  of  silver  corresponding  to  a definite  quantity  of  water. 

12.  After  this  experiment,  he  likewise  dropped  the  mass  of  gold 
into  the  full  vessel  and,  on  taking  it  out  and  measuring  as  before, 
found  that  not  so  much  water  was  lost,  but  a smaller  quantity: 
namely,  as  much  less  as  a mass  of  gold  lacks  in  bulk  compared  to 
a mass  of  silver  of  the  same  weight.  Finally,  filling  the  vessel  again 
and  dropping  the  crown  itself  into  the  same  quantity  of  water,  he 
found  that  more  water  ran  over  for  the  crown  than  for  the  mass 
of  gold  of  the  same  weight.  Hence,  reasoning  from  the  fact  that 
more  water  was  lost  in  the  case  of  the  crown  than  in  that  of  the 
mass,  he  detected  the  mixing  of  silver  with  the  gold,  and  made 
the  theft  of  the  contractor  perfectly  clear. 


INTRODUCTION 


255 


13.  Now  let  us  turn  our  thoughts  to  the  researches  of  Archytas 
of  Tarentum  and  Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene.  They  made  many  dis- 
coveries from  mathematics  which  are  welcome  to  men,  and  so, 
though  they  deserve  our  thanks  for  other  discoveries,  they  are 
particularly  worthy  of  admiration  for  their  ideas  in  that  field. 
For  example,  each  in  a different  way  solved  the  problem  enjoined 
upon  Delos  by  Apollo  in  an  oracle,  the  doubling  of  the  number  of 
cubic  feet  in  his  altars;  this  done,  he  said,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
island  would  be  delivered  from  an  offence  against  religion. 

14.  Archytas  solved  it  by  his  figure  of  the  semicylinders; 
Eratosthenes,  by  means  of  the  instrument  called  the  mesolabe. 

Noting  all  these  things  with  the  great  delight  which  learning 
gives,  we  cannot  but  be  stirred  by  these  discoveries  when  we 
reflect  upon  the  influence  of  them  one  by  one.  I find  also  much  for 
admiration  in  the  books  of  Democritus  on  nature,  and  in  his  com- 
mentary entitled  XeipoK/n^ra,  in  which  he  made  use  of  his  ring 
to  seal  with  soft  wax  the  principles  which  he  had  himself  put 
to  the  test. 

15.  These,  then,  were  men  whose  researches  are  an  everlast- 
ing possession,  not  only  for  the  improvement  of  character  but  also 
for  general  utility.  The  fame  of  athletes,  however,  soon  declines 
with  their  bodily  powers.  Neither  when  they  are  in  the  flower  of 
their  strength,  nor  afterwards  with  posterity,  can  they  do  for 
human  life  what  is  done  by  the  researches  of  the  learned. 

16.  But  although  honours  are  not  bestowed  upon  authors  for 
excellence  of  character  and  teaching,  yet  as  their  minds,  naturally 
looking  up  to  the  higher  regions  of  the  air,  are  raised  to  the  sky 
on  the  steps  of  history,  it  must  needs  be,  that  not  merely  their 
doctrines,  but  even  their  appearance,  should  be  known  to  poster- 
ity through  time  eternal.  Hence,  men  whose  souls  are  aroused 
by  the  delights  of  literature  cannot  but  carry  enshrined  in  their 
hearts  the  likeness  of  the  poet  Ennius,  as  they  do  those  of  the 
gods.  Those  who  are  devotedly  attached  to  the  poems  of  Accius 
seem  to  have  before  them  not  merely  his  vigorous  language  but 
even  his  very  figure. 


256 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IX 


17.  So,  too,  numbers  born  after  our  time  will  feel  as  if  they  were 
discussing  nature  face  to  face  with  Lucretius,  or  the  art  of  rhetoric 
with  Cicero;  many  of  our  posterity  will  confer  with  Varro  on  the 
Latin  language;  likewise,  there  will  be  numerous  scholars  who, 
as  they  weigh  many  points  with  the  wise  among  the  Greeks,  will 
feel  as  if  they  were  carrying  on  private  conversations  with  them. 
In  a word,  the  opinions  of  learned  authors,  though  their  bodily 
forms  are  absent,  gain  strength  as  time  goes  on,  and,  when  tak- 
ing part  in  councils  and  discussions,  have  greater  weight  than 
those  of  any  living  men. 

18.  Such, Caesar,  are  the  authorities  on  whom  I have  depended, 
and  applying  their  views  and  opinions  I have  written  the  present 
books,  in  the  first  seven  treating  of  buildings  and  in  the  eighth 
of  water.  In  this  I shall  set  forth  the  rules  for  dialling,  showing 
how  they  are  found  through  the  shadows  cast  by  the  gnomon  from 
the  sun’s  rays  in  the  firmament,  and  on  what  principles  these 
shadows  lengthen  and  shorten. 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  ZODIAC  AND  THE  PLANETS 

1.  It  is  due  to  the  divine  intelligence  and  is  a very  great 
wonder  to  all  who  reflect  upon  it,  that  the  shadow  of  a gnomon  at 
the  equinox  is  of  one  length  in  Athens,  of  another  in  Alexandria, 
of  another  in  Rome,  and  not  the  same  at  Piacenza,  or  at  other 
places  in  the  world.  Hence  drawings  for  dials  are  very  different 
from  one  another,  corresponding  to  differences  of  situation.  This 
is  because  the  length  of  the  shadow  at  the  equinox  is  used  in 
constructing  the  figure  of  the  analemma,  in  accordance  with 
which  the  hours  are  marked  to  conform  to  the  situation  and  the 
shadow  of  the  gnomon.  The  analemma  is  a basis  for  calculation 
deduced  from  the  course  of  the  sun,  and  found  by  observation 
of  the  shadow  as  it  increases  until  the  winter  solstice.  By  means 
of  this,  through  architectural  principles  and  the  employment  of 
the  compasses,  we  find  out  the  operation  of  the  sun  in  the  uni- 
verse. 

2 The  word  “universe”  means  the  general  assemblage  of  all 
nature,  and  it  also  means  the  heaven  that  is  made  up  of  the 
constellations  and  the  courses  of  the  stars.  The  heaven  revolves 
steadily  round  earth  and  sea  on  the  pivots  at  the  ends  of  its  axis. 
The  architect  at  these  points  was  the  power  of  Nature,  and  she 
put  the  pivots  there,  to  be,  as  it  were,  centres,  one  of  them  above 
the  earth  and  sea  at  the  very  top  of  the  firmament  and  even  be- 
yond the  stars  composing  the  Great  Bear,  the  other  on  the  op- 
posite side  under  the  earth  in  the  regions  of  the  south.  Round 
these  pivots  (termed  in  Greek  7 ro\oi)  as  centres,  like  those  of 
a turning  lathe,  she  formed  the  circles  in  which  the  heaven  passes 
on  its  everlasting  way.  In  the  midst  thereof,  the  earth  and  sea 
naturally  occupy  the  central  point. 

3.  It  follows  from  this  natural  arrangement  that  the  central 
point  in  the  north  is  high  above  the  earth,  while  on  the  south,  the 


258 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IX 


region  below,  it  is  beneath  the  earth  and  consequently  hidden  by 
it.  Furthermore,  across  the  middle,  and  obliquely  inclined  to  the 
south,  there  is  a broad  circular  belt  composed  of  the  twelve  signs, 
whose  stars,  arranged  in  twelve  equivalent  divisions,  represent 
each  a shape  which  nature  has  depicted.  And  so  with  the  firma- 
ment and  the  other  constellations,  they  move  round  the  earth 
and  sea  in  glittering  array,  completing  their  orbits  according  to 
the  spherical  shape  of  the  heaven. 

4.  They  are  all  visible  or  invisible  according  to  fixed  times. 
While  six  of  the  signs  are  passing  along  with  the  heaven  above 
the  earth,  the  other  six  are  moving  under  the  earth  and  hidden  by 
its  shadow.  But  there  are  always  six  of  them  making  their  way 
above  the  earth;  for,  corresponding  to  that  part  of  the  last  sign 
which  in  the  course  of  its  revolution  has  to  sink,  pass  under  the 
earth,  and  become  concealed,  an  equivalent  part  of  the  sign  oppo- 
site to  it  is  obliged  by  the  law  of  their  common  revolution  to 
pass  up  and,  having  completed  its  circuit,  to  emerge  out  of  the 
darkness  into  the  light  of  the  open  space  on  the  other  side.  This 
is  because  the  rising  and  setting  of  both  are  subject  to  one  and 
the  same  power  and  law. 

5.  While  these  signs,  twelve  in  number  and  occupying  each 
one  twelfth  part  of  the  firmament,  steadily  revolve  from  east  to 
west,  the  moon,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  sun,  as  well  as  Mars,  Jupi- 
ter, and  Saturn,  differing  from  one  another  in  the  magnitude  of 
their  orbits  as  though  their  courses  were  at  different  points  in  a 
flight  of  steps,  pass  through  those  signs  in  just  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, from  west  to  east  in  the  firmament.  The  moon  makes  her 
circuit  of  the  heaven  in  twenty-eight  days  plus  about  an  hour, 
and  with  her  return  to  the  sign  from  which  she  set  forth,  completes 
a lunar  month. 

6.  The  sun  takes  a full  month  to  move  across  the  space  of  one 
sign,  that  is,  one  twelfth  of  the  firmament.  Consequently,  in 
twelve  months  he  traverses  the  spaces  of  the  twelve  signs,  and, 
on  returning  to  the  sign  from  which  he  began,  completes  the 
period  of  a full  year.  Hence,  the  circuit  made  by  the  moon  thir- 


259 


Chap.  I]  THE  ZODIAC  AND  THE  PLANETS 

teen  times  in  twelve  months,  is  measured  by  the  sun  only  once 
in  the  same  number  of  months.  But  Mercury  and  Venus,  their 
paths  wreathing  around  the  sun’s  rays  as  their  centre,  retro- 
grade and  delay  their  movements,  and  so,  from  the  nature  of 
chat  circuit,  sometimes  wait  at  stopping-places  within  the  spaces 
of  the  signs. 

7.  This  fact  may  best  be  recognized  from  Venus.  When  she 
is  following  the  sun,  she  makes  her  appearance  in  the  sky  after 
his  setting,  and  is  then  called  the  Evening  Star,  shining  most 
brilliantly.  At  other  times  she  precedes  him,  rising  before  day- 
break, and  is  named  the  Morning  Star.  Thus  Mercury  and 
Venus  sometimes  delay  in  one  sign  for  a good  many  days,  and 
at  others  advance  pretty  rapidly  into  another  sign.  They  do  not 
spend  the  same  number  of  days  in  every  sign,  but  the  longer 
they  have  previously  delayed,  the  more  rapidly  they  accomplish 
their  journeys  after  passing  into  the  next  sign,  and  thus  they 
complete  their  appointed  course.  Consequently,  in  spite  of  their 
delay  in  some  of  the  signs,  they  nevertheless  soon  reach  the  pro- 
per place  in  their  orbits  after  freeing  themselves  from  their  en- 
forced delay. 

8.  Mercury,  on  his  journey  through  the  heavens,  passes  through 
the  spaces  of  the  signs  in  three  hundred  and  sixty  days,  and  so 
arrives  at  the  sign  from  which  he  set  out  on  his  course  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  revolution.  His  average  rate  of  movement  is  such 
that  he  has  about  thirty  days  in  each  sign. 

9.  Venus,  on  becoming  free  from  the  hindrance  of  the  sun’s 
rays,  crosses  the  space  of  a sign  in  thirty  days.  Though  she  thus 
stays  less  than  forty  days  in  particular  signs,  she  makes  good  the 
required  amount  by  delaying  in  one  sign  when  she  comes  to  a 
pause.  Therefore  she  completes  her  total  revolution  in  heaven  in 
four  hundred  and  eighty-five  days,  and  once  more  enters  the  sign 
from  which  she  previously  began  to  move. 

10.  Mars,  after  traversing  the  spaces  of  the  constellations  for 
about  six  hundred  and  eighty-three  days,  arrives  at  the  point 
from  which  he  had  before  set  out  at  the  beginning  of  his  course, 


260 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IX 


and  while  he  passes  through  some  of  the  signs  more  rapidly  than 
others,  he  makes  up  the  required  number  of  days  whenever  he 
comes  to  a pause.  Jupiter,  climbing  with  gentler  pace  against  the 
revolution  of  the  firmament,  travels  through  each  sign  in  about 
three  hundred  and  sixty  days,  and  finishes  in  eleven  years  and 
three  hundred  and  thirteen  days,  returning  to  the  sign  in  which  he 
had  been  twelve  years  before.  Saturn,  traversing  the  space  of 
one  sign  in  twenty-nine  months  plus  a few  days,  is  restored  after 
twenty-nine  years  and  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  days  to  that 
in  which  he  had  been  thirty  years  before.  He  is,  as  it  appears, 
slower,  because  the  nearer  he  is  to  the  outermost  part  of  the  fir- 
mament, the  greater  is  the  orbit  through  which  he  has  to  pass. 

11.  The  three  that  complete  their  circuits  above  the  sun’s 
course  do  not  make  progress  while  they  are  in  the  triangle  which 
he  has  entered,  but  retrograde  and  pause  until  the  sun  has 
crossed  from  that  triangle  into  another  sign.  Some  hold  that  this 
takes  place  because,  as  they  say,  when  the  sun  is  a great  dis- 
tance off,  the  paths  on  which  these  stars  wander  are  without 
light  on  account  of  that  distance,  and  so  the  darkness  retards 
and  hinders  them.  But  I do  not  think  that  this  is  so.  The  splen- 
dour of  the  sun  is  clearly  to  be  seen,  and  manifest  without  any 
kind  of  obscurity,  throughout  the  whole  firmament,  so  that  those 
very  retrograde  movements  and  pauses  of  the  stars  are  visible 
even  to  us. 

12.  If  then,  at  this  great  distance,  our  human  vision  can  discern 
that  sight,  why,  pray,  are  we  to  think  that  the  divine  splendour  of 
the  stars  can  be  cast  into  darkness?  Rather  will  the  following  way 
of  accounting  for  it  prove  to  be  correct.  Heat  summons  and  at- 
tracts everything  towards  itself;  for  instance,  we  see  the  fruits 
of  the  earth  growing  up  high  under  the  influence  of  heat,  and  that 
spring  water  is  vapourised  and  drawn  up  to  the  clouds  at  sunrise. 
On  the  same  principle,  the  mighty  influence  of  the  sun,  with 
his  rays  diverging  in  the  form  of  a triangle,  attracts  the  stars 
which  follow  him,  and,  as  it  were,  curbs  and  restrains  those  that 
precede,  not  allowing  them  to  make  progress,  but  obliging  them 


261 


chap.  I]  THE  ZODIAC  AND  THE  PLANETS 

to  retrograde  towards  himself  until  he  passes  out  into  the  sign 
that  belongs  to  a different  triangle. 

13.  Perhaps  the  question  will  be  raised,  why  the  sun  by  his 
great  heat  causes  these  detentions  in  the  fifth  sign  from  himself 
rather  than  in  the  second  or  third,  which  are  nearer.  I will  there- 
fore set  forth  what  seems  to  be  the  reason.  His  rays  diverge 
through  the  firmament  in  straight  lines  as  though  forming  an 
equilateral  triangle,  that  is,  to  the  fifth  sign  from  the  sun,  no 
more,  no  less.  If  his  rays  were  diffused  in  circuits  spreading  all 
over  the  firmament,  instead  of  in  straight  lines  diverging  so  as  to 
form  a triangle,  they  would  burn  up  all  the  nearer  objects.  This 
is  a fact  which  the  Greek  poet  Euripides  seems  to  have  remarked; 
for  he  says  that  places  at  a greater  distance  from  the  sun  are  in 
a violent  heat,  and  that  those  which  are  nearer  he  keeps  temper- 
ate. Thus  in  the  play  of  Phaethon,  the  poet  writes:  icalei  t& 
7 r6ppcoy  rayyvOev  8*  ev/cpaT 

14.  If  then,  fact  and  reason  and  the  evidence  of  an  ancient 
poet  point  to  this  explanation,  I do  not  see  why  we  should  decide 
otherwise  than  as  I have  written  above  on  this  subject. 

Jupiter,  whose  orbit  is  between  those  of  Mars  and  Saturn, 
traverses  a longer  course  than  Mars,  and  a shorter  than  Saturn. 
Likewise  with  the  rest  of  these  stars : the  farther  they  are  from  the 
outermost  limits  of  the  heaven,  and  the  nearer  their  orbits  to  the 
earth,  the  sooner  they  are  seen  to  finish  their  courses;  for  those 
of  them  that  have  a smaller  orbit  often  pass  those  that  are  higher, 
going  under  them. 

15.  For  example,  place  seven  ants  on  a wheel  such  as  potters 
use,  having  made  seven  channels  on  the  wheel  about  the  centre, 
increasing  successively  in  circumference;  and  suppose  those  ants 
obliged  to  make  a circuit  in  these  channels  while  the  wheel  is 
turned  in  the  opposite  direction.  In  spite  of  having  to  move 
in  a direction  contrary  to  that  of  the  wheel,  the  ants  must  neces- 
sarily complete  their  journeys  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  that 
ant  which  is  nearest  the  centre  must  finish  its  circuit  sooner, 
while  the  ant  that  is  going  round  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  disc  of 


262 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IX 


the  wheel  must,  on  account  of  the  size  of  its  circuit,  be  much 
slower  in  completing  its  course,  even  though  it  is  moving  just 
as  quickly  as  the  other.  In  the  same  way,  these  stars,  which 
struggle  on  against  the  course  of  the  firmament,  are  accomplish- 
ing an  orbit  on  paths  of  their  own;  but,  owing  to  the  revolution 
of  the  heaven,  they  are  swept  back  as  it  goes  round  every  day. 

16.  The  reason  why  some  of  these  stars  are  temperate,  others 
hot,  and  others  cold,  appears  to  be  this:  that  the  flame  of  every 
kind  of  fire  rises  to  higher  places.  Consequently,  the  burning 
rays  of  the  sun  make  the  ether  above  him  white  hot,  in  the  re- 
gions of  the  course  of  Mars,  and  so  the  heat  of  the  sun  makes  him 
hot.  Saturn,  on  the  contrary,  being  nearest  to  the  outermost  limit 
of  the  firmament  and  bordering  on  the  quarters  of  the  heaven 
which  are  frozen,  is  excessively  cold.  Hence,  Jupiter,  whose  course 
is  between  the  orbits  of  these  two,  appears  to  have  a moderate 
and  very  temperate  influence,  intermediate  between  their  cold 
and  heat. 

I have  now  described,  as  I have  received  them  from  my  teacher, 
the  belt  of  the  twelve  signs  and  the  seven  stars  that  work  and 
move  in  the  opposite  direction,  with  the  laws  and  numerical  re- 
lations under  which  they  pass  from  sign  to  sign,  and  how  they 
complete  their  orbits.  I shall  next  speak  of  the  waxing  and  wan- 
ing of  the  moon,  according  to  the  accounts  of  my  predecessors. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  PHASES  OF  THE  MOON 

1.  According  to  the  teaching  of  Berosus,  who  came  from  the 
state,  or  rather  nation,  of  the  Chaldees,  and  was  the  pioneer  of 
Chaldean  learning  in  Asia,  the  moon  is  a ball,  one  half  luminous 
and  the  rest  of  a blue  colour.  When,  in  the  course  of  her  orbit,  she 
has  passed  below  the  disc  of  the  sun,  she  is  attracted  by  his  rays 
and  great  heat,  and  turns  thither  her  luminous  side,  on  account 
of  the  sympathy  between  light  and  light.  Being  thus  summoned 


Chap.  II] 


THE  PHASES  OF  THE  MOON 


263 


by  the  sun’s  disc  and  facing  upward,  her  lower  half,  as  it  is  not 
luminous,  is  invisible  on  account  of  its  likeness  to  the  air.  When 
she  is  perpendicular  to  the  sun’s  rays,  all  her  light  is  confined  to 
her  upper  surface,  and  she  is  then  called  the  new  moon. 

2.  As  she  moves  on,  passing  by  to  the  east,  the  effect  of  the  sun 
upon  her  relaxes,  and  the  outer  edge  of  the  luminous  side  sheds 
its  light  upon  the  earth  in  an  exceedingly  thin  line.  This  is  called 
the  second  day  of  the  moon.  Day  by  day  she  is  further  relieved 
and  turns,  and  thus  are  numbered  the  third,  fourth,  and  following 
days.  On  the  seventh  day,  the  sun  being  in  the  west  and  the 
moon  in  the  middle  of  the  firmament  between  the  east  and  west, 
she  is  half  the  extent  of  the  firmament  distant  from  the  sun, 
and  therefore  half  of  the  luminous  side  is  turned  toward  the  earth. 
But  when  the  sun  and  moon  are  separated  by  the  entire  extent 
of  the  firmament,  and  the  moon  is  in  the  east  with  the  sun  over 
against  her  in  the  west,  she  is  completely  relieved  by  her  still 
greater  distance  from  his  rays,  and  so,  on  the  fourteenth  day,  she 
is  at  the  full,  and  her  entire  disc  emits  its  light.  On  the  succeeding 
days,  up  to  the  end  of  the  month,  she  wanes  daily  as  she  turns  in 
her  course,  being  recalled  by  the  sun  until  she  comes  under  his 
disc  and  rays,  thus  completing  the  count  of  the  days  of  the  month. 

3.  But  Aristarchus  of  Samos,  a mathematician  of  great  powers, 
has  left  a different  explanation  in  his  teaching  on  this  subject,  as 
I shall  now  set  forth.  It  is  no  secret  that  the  moon  has  no  light  of 
her  own,  but  is,  as  it  were,  a mirror,  receiving  brightness  from  the 
influence  of  the  sun.  Of  all  the  seven  stars,  the  moon  traverses 
the  shortest  orbit,  and  her  course  is  nearest  to  the  earth.  Hence 
in  every  month,  on  the  day  before  she  gets  past  the  sun,  she  is 
under  his  disc  and  rays,  and  is  consequently  hidden  and  invis- 
ible. When  she  is  thus  in  conjunction  with  the  sun,  she  is  called 
the  new  moon.  On  the  next  day,  reckoned  as  her  second,  she  gets 
past  the  sun  and  shows  the  thin  edge  of  her  sphere.  Three  days 
away  from  the  sun,  she  waxes  and  grows  brighter.  Removing 
further  every  day  till  she  reaches  the  seventh,  when  her  distance 
from  the  sun  at  his  setting  is  about  one  half  the  extent  of  the 


VITRUVIUS 


264 


[Book  IX 


firmament,  one  half  of  her  is  luminous:  that  is,  the  half  which 
faces  toward  the  sun  is  lighted  up  by  him. 

4.  On  the  fourteenth  day,  being  diametrically  across  the  whole 
extent  of  the  firmament  from  the  sun,  she  is  at  her  full  and  rises 
when  the  sun  is  setting.  For,  as  she  takes  her  place  over  against 
him  and  distant  the  whole  extent  of  the  firmament,  she  thus  re- 
ceives the  light  from  the  sun  throughout  her  entire  orb.  On  the 
seventeenth  day,  at  sunrise,  she  is  inclining  to  the  west.  On  the 
twenty-second  day,  after  sunrise,  the  moon  is  about  mid-heaven; 
hence,  the  side  exposed  to  the  sun  is  bright  and  the  rest  dark. 
Continuing  thus  her  daily  course,  she  passes  under  the  rays  of  the 
sun  on  about  the  twenty-eighth  day,  and  so  completes  the  ac- 
count of  the  month. 

I will  next  explain  how  the  sun,  passing  through  a different 
sign  each  month,  causes  the  days  and  hours  to  increase  and 
diminish  in  length. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  COURSE  OP  THE  SUN  THROUGH  THE  TWELVE  SIGNS 

1.  The  sun,  after  entering  the  sign  Aries  and  passing  through 
one  eighth  of  it,  determines  the  vernal  equinox.  On  reaching  the 
tail  of  Taurus  and  the  constellation  of  the  Pleiades,  from  which 
the  front  half  of  Taurus  projects,  he  advances  into  a space  greater 
than  half  the  firmament,  moving  toward  the  north.  From  Taurus 
he  enters  Gemini  at  the  time  of  the  rising  of  the  Pleiades,  and, 
getting  higher  above  the  earth,  he  increases  the  length  of  the 
days.  Next,  coming  from  Gemini  into  Cancer,  which  occupies  the 
shortest  space  in  heaven,  and  after  traversing  one  eighth  of  it,  he 
determines  the  summer  solstice.  Continuing  on,  he  reaches  the 
head  and  breast  of  Leo,  portions  which  are  reckoned  as  belong- 
ing to  Cancer. 

2.  After  leaving  the  breast  of  Leo  and  the  boundaries  of 
Cancer,  the  sun,  traversing  the  rest  of  Leo,  makes  the  days  shorter, 
diminishing  the  size  of  his  circuit,  and  returning  to  the  same 


265 


Chap.  IV]  NORTHERN  CONSTELLATIONS 

course  that  he  had  in  Gemini.  Next,  crossing  from  Leo  into  Virgo, 
and  advancing  as  far  as  the  bosom  of  her  garment,  he  still  fur- 
ther shortens  his  circuit,  making  his  course  equal  to  what  it  was 
in  Taurus.  Advancing  from  Virgo  by  way  of  the  bosom  of  her 
garment,  which  forms  the  first  part  of  Libra,  he  determines  the 
autumn  equinox  at  the  end  of  one  eighth  of  Libra.  Here  his 
course  is  equal  to  what  his  circuit  was  in  the  sign  Aries. 

3.  When  the  sun  has  entered  Scorpio,  at  the  time  of  the  setting 
of  the  Pleiades,  he  begins  to  make  the  days  shorter  as  he  advances 
toward  the  south.  From  Scorpio  he  enters  Sagittarius  and,  on 
reaching  the  thighs,  his  daily  course  is  still  further  diminished. 
From  the  thighs  of  Sagittarius,  which  are  reckoned  as  part  of 
Capricornus,  he  reaches  the  end  of  the  first  eighth  of  the  latter, 
where  his  course  in  heaven  is  shortest.  Consequently,  this  sea- 
son, from  the  shortness  of  the  day,  is  called  bruma  or  dies  bru- 
males.  Crossing  from  Capricornus  into  Aquarius,  he  causes  the 
days  to  increase  to  the  length  which  they  had  when  he  was  in 
Sagittarius.  From  Aquarius  he  enters  Pisces  at  the  time  when 
Favonius  begins  to  blow,  and  here  his  course  is  the  same  as  in 
Scorpio.  In  this  way  the  sun  passes  round  through  the  signs, 
lengthening  or  shortening  the  days  and  hours  at  definite 
seasons. 

I shall  next  speak  of  the  other  constellations  formed  by  ar- 
rangements of  stars,  and  lying  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  belt  of 
the  signs,  in  the  southern  and  northern  portions  of  the  firmament. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  NORTHERN  CONSTELLATIONS 

1.  The  Great  Bear,  called  in  Greek  ap/cros  or  ixUrj,  has  her 
Warden  behind  her.  Near  him  is  the  Virgin,  on  whose  right  shoul- 
der rests  a very  bright  star  which  we  call  Harbinger  of  the  Vin- 
tage, and  the  Greeks  TrpoTpv<yr)Tri$.  But  Spica  in  that  constella- 
tion is  brighter.  Opposite  there  is  another  star,  coloured,  between 


266  VITRUVIUS  [Book  IX 

the  knees  of  the  Bear  Warden,  dedicated  there  under  the  name  of 
Arcturus. 

2.  Opposite  the  head  of  the  Bear,  at  an  angle  with  the  feet 
of  the  Twins,  is  the  Charioteer,  standing  on  the  tip  of  the  horn 
of  the  Bull;  hence,  one  and  the  same  star  is  found  in  the  tip  of 
the  left  horn  of  the  Bull  and  in  the  right  foot  of  the  Charioteer. 
Supported  on  the  hand  of  the  Charioteer  are  the  Kids,  with  the 
She-Goat  at  his  left  shoulder.  Above  the  Bull  and  the  Ram  is 
Perseus,  having  at  his  right  . . d with  the  Pleiades  moving 
beneath,  and  at  his  left  the  head  of  the  Ram.  His  right  hand 
rests  on  the  likeness  of  Cassiopea,  and  with  his  left  he  holds  the 
Gorgon’s  head  by  its  top  over  the  Ram,  laying  it  at  the  feet  of 
Andromeda. 

3.  Above  Andromeda  are  the  Fishes,  one  above  her  belly  and 
the  other  above  the  backbone  of  the  Horse.  A very  bright 
star  terminates  both  the  belly  of  the  Horse  and  the  head  of 
Andromeda.  Andromeda’s  right  hand  rests  above  the  likeness 
of  Cassiopea,  and  her  left  above  the  Northern  Fish.  The  Water- 
man’s head  is  above  that  of  the  Horse.  The  Horse’s  hoofs  lie 
close  to  the  Waterman’s  knees.  Cassiopea  is  set  apart  in  the 
midst.  High  above  the  He-Goat  are  the  Eagle  and  the  Dolphin, 
and  near  them  is  the  Arrow.  Farther  on  is  the  Bird,  whose  right 
wing  grazes  the  head  and  sceptre  of  Cepheus,  with  its  left  resting 
over  Cassiopea.  Under  the  tail  of  the  Bird  lie  the  feet  of  the 
Horse. 

4.  Above  the  Archer,  Scorpion,  and  Balance,  is  the  Serpent, 
reaching  to  the  Crown  with  the  end  of  its  snout.  Next,  the  Ser- 
pent-holder grasps  the  Serpent  about  the  middle  in  his  hands, 
and  with  his  left  foot  treads  squarely  on  the  foreparts  of  the 
Scorpion.  A little  way  from  the  head  of  the  Serpent-holder  is  the 
head  of  the  so-called  Kneeler.  Their  heads  are  the  more  readily 
to  be  distinguished  as  the  stars  which  compose  them  are  by  no 
means  dim. 

1 From  this  point  to  the  end  of  section  3 the  text  is  often  hopelessly  corrupt.  The 
translation  follows,  approximately,  the  manuscript  reading,  but  cannot  pretend  to  be 
exact. 


Chap.  V] 


SOUTHERN  CONSTELLATIONS 


267 


5.  The  foot  of  the  Kneeler  rests  on  the  temple  of  that  Ser- 
pent which  is  entwined  between  the  She-Bears  (called  Septen- 
triones) . The  little  Dolphin  moves  in  front  of  the  Horse.  Opposite 
the  bill  of  the  Bird  is  the  Lyre.  The  Crown  is  arranged  between 
the  shoulders  of  the  Warden  and  the  Kneeler.  In  the  northern 
circle  are  the  two  She-Bears  with  their  shoulder-blades  con- 
fronting and  their  breasts  turned  away  from  one  another.  The 
Greeks  call  the  Lesser  Bear  fcvvocrovpa , and  the  Greater  iXUrj. 
Their  heads  face  different  ways,  and  their  tails  are  shaped  so 
that  each  is  in  front  of  the  head  of  the  other  Bear;  for  the  tails 
of  both  stick  up  over  them. 

6.  The  Serpent  is  said  to  lie  stretched  out  between  their  tails, 
and  in  it  there  is  a star,  called  Polus,  shining  near  the  head  of  the 
Greater  Bear.  At  the  nearest  point,  the  Serpent  winds  its  head 
round,  but  is  also  flung  in  a fold  round  the  head  of  the  Lesser 
Bear,  and  stretches  out  close  to  her  feet.  Here  it  twists  back, 
making  another  fold,  and,  lifting  itself  up,  bends  its  snout  and 
right  temple  from  the  head  of  the  Lesser  Bear  round  towards 
the  Greater.  Above  the  tail  of  the  Lesser  Bear  are  the  feet  of 
Cepheus,  and  at  this  point,  at  the  very  top,  are  stars  forming  an 
equilateral  triangle.  There  are  a good  many  stars  common  to 
the  Lesser  Bear  and  to  Cepheus. 

I have  now  mentioned  the  constellations  which  are  arranged 
in  the  heaven  to  the  right  of  the  east,  between  the  belt  of  the  signs 
and  the  north.  I shall  next  describe  those  that  Nature  has  dis- 
tributed to  the  left  of  the  east  and  in  the  southern  regions. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  SOUTHERN  CONSTELLATIONS 

1.  First,  under  the  He-Goat  lies  the  Southern  Fish,  facing 
towards  the  tail  of  the  Whale.  The  Censer  is  under  the  Scorpion’s 
sting.  The  fore  parts  of  the  Centaur  are  next  to  the  Balance  and 
the  Scorpion,  and  he  holds  in  his  hands  the  figure  which  astrono- 


268 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IX 


mers  call  the  Beast.  Beneath  the  Virgin,  Lion,  and  Crab  is  the 
twisted  girdle  formed  by  the  Snake,  extending  over  a whole  line 
of  stars,  his  snout  raised  near  the  Crab,  supporting  the  Bowl  with 
the  middle  of  his  body  near  the  Lion,  and  bringing  his  tail,  on 
which  is  the  Raven,  under  and  near  the  hand  of  the  Virgin.  The 
region  above  his  shoulders  is  equally  bright. 

2.  Beneath  the  Snake’s  belly,  at  the  tail,  lies  the  Centaur. 
Near  the  Bowl  and  the  Lion  is  the  ship  named  Argo.  Her  bow  is 
invisible,  but  her  mast  and  the  parts  about  the  helm  are  in  plain 
sight,  the  stern  of  the  vessel  joining  the  Dog  at  the  tip  of  his 
tail.  The  Little  Dog  follows  the  Twins,  and  is  opposite  the  Snake’s 
head.  The  Greater  Dog  follows  the  Lesser.  Orion  lies  aslant, 
under  the  Bull’s  hoof ; in  his  left  hand  grasping  his  club,  and  rais- 
ing the  other  toward  the  Twins. 

3.  At  his  feet  is  the  Dog,  following  a little  behind  the  Hare. 
The  Whale  lies  under  the  Ram  and  the  Fishes,  and  from  his  mane 
there  is  a slight  sprinkling  of  stars,  called  in  Greek  apirehovai, 
regularly  disposed  towards  each  of  the  Fishes.  This  ligature  by 
which  they  hang  is  carried  a great  way  inwards,  but  reaches  out 
to  the  top  of  the  mane  of  the  Whale.  The  River,  formed  of  stars, 
flows  from  a source  at  the  left  foot  of  Orion.  But  the  Water, 
said  to  pour  from  the  Waterman,  flows  between  the  head  of  the 
Southern  Fish  and  the  tail  of  the  Whale. 

4.  These  constellations,  whose  outlines  and  shapes  in  the 
heavens  were  designed  by  Nature  and  the  divine  intelligence,  I 
have  described  according  to  the  view  of  the  natural  philosopher 
Democritus,  but  only  those  whose  risings  and  settings  we  can 
observe  and  see  with  our  own  eyes.  Just  as  the  Bears  turn  round 
the  pivot  of  the  axis  without  ever  setting  or  sinking  under  the 
earth,  there  are  likewise  stars  that  keep  turning  round  the  south- 
ern pivot,  which  on  account  of  the  inclination  of  the  firmament 
lies  always  under  the  earth,  and,  being  hidden  there,  they  never 
rise  and  emerge  above  the  earth.  Consequently,  the  figures  which 
they  form  are  unknown  to  us  on  account  of  the  interposition  of 
the  earth.  The  star  Canopus  proves  this.  It  is  unknown  to  our 


Chap.  VI] 


ASTROLOGY 


269 


vicinity;  but  we  have  reports  of  it  from  merchants  who  have  been 
to  the  most  distant  part  of  Egypt,  and  to  regions  bordering  on 
the  uttermost  boundaries  of  the  earth. 


CHAPTER  VI 

ASTROLOGY  AND  WEATHER  PROGNOSTICS 

1.  I have  shown  how  the  firmament,  and  the  twelve  signs  with 
the  constellations  arranged  to  the  north  and  south  of  them,  fly 
round  the  earth,  so  that  the  matter  may  be  clearly  understood. 
For  it  is  from  this  revolution  of  the  firmament,  from  the  course 
of  the  sun  through  the  signs  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  from 
the  shadows  cast  by  equinoctial  gnomons,  that  we  find  the 
figure  of  the  analemma. 

2.  As  for  the  branch  of  astronomy  which  concerns  the  influences 
of  the  twelve  signs,  the  five  stars,  the  sun,  and  the  moon  upon 
human  life,  we  must  leave  all  this  to  the  calculations  of  the  Chal- 
deans, to  whom  belongs  the  art  of  casting  nativities,  which  enables 
them  to  declare  the  past  and  the  future  by  means  of  calculations 
based  on  the  stars.  These  discoveries  have  been  transmitted  by 
the  men  of  genius  and  great  acuteness  who  sprang  directly  from 
the  nation  of  the  Chaldeans;  first  of  all,  by  Berosus,  who  settled 
in  the  island  state  of  Cos,  and  there  opened  a school.  Afterwards 
Antipater  pursued  the  subject;  then  there  was  Archinapolus,  who 
also  left  rules  for  casting  nativities,  based  not  on  the  moment  of 
birth  but  on  that  of  conception. 

8.  When  we  come  to  natural  philosophy,  however,  Thales  of 
Miletus,  Anaxagoras  of  Ciazomenae,  Pythagoras  of  Samos,  Xeno- 
phanes of  Colophon,  and  Democritus  of  Abdera  have  in  various 
ways  investigated  and  left  us  the  laws  and  the  working  of  the  laws 
by  which  nature  governs  it.  In  the  track  of  their  discoveries,  Eu- 
doxus, Euctemon,  Callippus,  Meto,  Philippus,  Hipparchus,  Aratus, 
and  others  discovered  the  risings  and  settings  of  the  constellations, 
as  well  as  weather  prognostications  from  astronomy  through 


270 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IX 


the  study  of  the  calendars,  and  this  study  they  set  forth  and  left 
to  posterity.  Their  learning  deserves  the  admiration  of  mankind; 
for  they  were  so  solicitous  as  even  to  be  able  to  predict,  long  be- 
forehand, with  divining  mind,  the  signs  of  the  weather  which 
was  to  follow  in  the  future.  On  this  subject,  therefore,  reference 
must  be  made  to  their  labours  and  investigations. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  ANALEMMA  AND  ITS  APPLICATIONS 

1.  In  distinction  from  the  subjects  first  mentioned,  we  must 
ourselves  explain  the  principles  which  govern  the  shortening  and 
lengthening  of  the  day.  When  the  sun  is  at  the  equinoxes,  that 
is,  passing  through  Aries  or  Libra,  he  makes  the  gnomon  cast  a 
shadow  equal  to  eight  ninths  of  its  own  length,  in  the  latitude 
of  Rome.  In  Athens,  the  shadow  is  equal  to  three  fourths  of  the 
length  of  the  gnomon;  at  Rhodes  to  five  sevenths;  at  Tarentum, 
to  nine  elevenths;  at  Alexandria,  to  three  fifths;  and  so  at  other 
places  it  is  found  that  the  shadows  of  equinoctial  gnomons  are 
naturally  different  from  one  another. 

2.  Hence,  wherever  a sundial  is  to  be  constructed,  we  must 
take  the  equinoctial  shadow  of  the  place.  If  it  is  found  to  be,  as 
in  Rome,  equal  to  eight  ninths  of  the  gnomon,  let  a line  be 
drawn  on  a plane  surface,  and  in  the  middle  thereof  erect  a per- 
pendicular, plumb  to  the  line,  which  perpendicular  is  called  the 
gnomon.  Then,  from  the  line  in  the  plane,  let  the  line  of  the  gno- 
mon be  divided  off  by  the  compasses  into  nine  parts,  and  take 
the  point  designating  the  ninth  part  as  a centre,  to  be  marked  by 
the  letter  A.  Then,  opening  the  compasses  from  that  centre  to 
the  line  in  the  plane  at  the  point  B,  describe  a circle.  This  circle 
is  called  the  meridian. 

3.  Then,  of  the  nine  parts  between  the  plane  and  the  centre  on 
the  gnomon,  take  eight,  and  mark  them  off  on  the  line  in  the 
plane  to  the  point  C.  This  will  be  the  equinoctial  shadow  of  the 


€hap.  YII] 


THE  ANALEMMA 


271 


gnomon.  From  that  point,  marked  by  C,  let  a line  be  drawn 
through  the  centre  at  the  point  A,  and  this  will  represent  a ray 
of  the  sun  at  the  equinox.  Then,  extending  the  compasses  from 
the  centre  to  the  line  in  the  plane,  mark  off  the  equidistant  points 
E on  the  left  and  I on  the  right,  on  the  two  sides  of  the  circum- 


ference, and  let  a line  be  drawn  through  the  centre,  dividing  the 
circle  into  two  equal  semicircles.  This  line  is  called  by  mathe- 
maticians the  horizon. 

4.  Then,  take  a fifteenth  part  of  the  entire  circumference,  and, 
placing  the  centre  of  the  compasses  on  the  circumference  at  the 
point  where  the  equinoctial  ray  cuts  it  at  the  letter  F,  mark  off 
the  points  G and  H on  the  right  and  left.  Then  lines  must  be 
drawn  from  these  (and  the  centre)  to  the  line  of  the  plane  at  the 
points  T and  R,  and  thus,  one  will  represent  the  ray  of  the  sun 
in  winter,  and  the  other  the  ray  in  summer.  Opposite  E will  be 
the  point  I,  where  the  line  drawn  through  the  centre  at  the  point 
A cuts  the  circumference;  opposite  G and  H will  be  the  points 
L and  K;  and  opposite  C,  F,  and  A will  be  the  point  N. 

5.  Then,  diameters  are  to  be  drawn  from  G to  L and  from  H to 
K.  The  upper  will  denote  the  summer  and  the  lower  the  winter 
portion.  These  diameters  are  to  be  divided  equally  in  the  middle 
at  the  points  M and  O,  and  those  centres  marked;  then,  through 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IX 


these  marks  and  the  centre  A,  draw  a line  extending  to  the  two 
sides  of  the  circumference  at  the  points  P and  Q.  This  will  be  a 
line  perpendicular  to  the  equinoctial  ray,  and  it  is  called  in  mathe- 
matical figures  the  axis.  From  these  same  centres  open  the  com- 
passes to  the  ends  of  the  diameters,  and  describe  semicircles,  one 
of  which  will  be  for  summer  and  the  other  for  winter. 

6.  Then,  at  the  points  at  which  the  parallel  lines  cut  the  line 
called  the  horizon,  the  letter  S is  to  be  on  the  right  and  the  letter 
V on  the  left,  and  from  the  extremity  of  the  semicircle,  at  the 
point  G,  draw  a line  parallel  to  the  axis,  extending  to  the  left- 
hand  semicircle  at  the  point  H.  This  parallel  line  is  called  the 
Logotomus.  Then,  centre  the  compasses  at  the  point  where  the 
equinoctial  ray  cuts  that  line,  at  the  letter  D,  and  open  them 
to  the  point  where  the  summer  ray  cuts  the  circumference  at  the 
letter  H.  From  the  equinoctial  centre,  with  a radius  extending 
to  the  summer  ray,  describe  the  circumference  of  the  circle  of 
the  months,  which  is  called  Menaeus.  Thus  we  shall  have  the 
figure  of  the  analemma. 

7.  This  having  been  drawn  and  completed,  the  scheme  of  hours 
is  next  to  be  drawn  on  the  baseplates  from  the  analemma,  accord- 
ing to  the  winter  lines,  or  those  of  summer,  or  the  equinoxes,  or  the 
months,  and  thus  many  different  kinds  of  dials  may  be  laid  down 
and  drawn  by  this  ingenious  method.  But  the  result  of  all  these 
shapes  and  designs  is  in  one  respect  the  same:  namely,  the  days  of 
the  equinoxes  and  of  the  winter  and  summer  solstices  are  always 
divided  into  twelve  equal  parts.  Omitting  details,  therefore,  — 
not  for  fear  of  the  trouble,  but  lest  I should  prove  tiresome  by 
writing  too  much,  — I will  state  by  whom  the  different  classes 
and  designs  of  dials  have  been  invented.  For  I cannot  invent 
new  kinds  myself  at  this  late  day,  nor  do  I think  that  I ought  to 
display  the  inventions  of  others  as  my  own.  Hence,  I will  men- 
tion those  that  have  come  down  to  us,  and  by  whom  they  were 
invented. 


Chap.  VIII]  SUNDIALS  AND  WATER  CLOCKS 


273 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SUNDIALS  AND  WATER  CLOCKS 

1.  The  semicircular  form,  hollowed  out  of  a square  block,  and 
cut  under  to  correspond  to  the  polar  altitude,  is  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  Berosus  the  Chaldean;  the  Scaphe  or  Hemisphere, 
by  Aristarchus  of  Samos,  as  well  as  the  disc  on  a plane  surface;  the 
Arachne,  by  the  astronomer  Eudoxus  or,  as  some  say,  by  Apollo- 
nius; the  Plinthium  or  Lacunar,  like  the  one  placed  in  the  Circus 
Flaminius,  by  Scopinas  of  Syracuse;  the  77730?  ra  laropovfieva , by 
Parmenio;  the  77730?  irav  /cXlfia,  by  Theodosius  and  Andreas;  the 
Pelecinum,  by  Patrocles;  the  Cone,  by  Dionysodorus;  the  Quiver, 
by  Apollonius.  The  men  whose  names  are  written  above,  as 
well  as  many  others,  have  invented  and  left  us  other  kinds : as, 
for  instance,  the  Conarachne,  the  Conical  Plinthium,  and  the 
Antiborean.  Many  have  also  left  us  written  directions  for  mak- 
ing dials  of  these  kinds  for  travellers,  which  can  be  hung  up.  Who- 
ever wishes  to  find  their  baseplates,  can  easily  do  so  from  the 
books  of  these  writers,  provided  only  he  understands  the  figure 
of  the  analemma. 

2.  Methods  of  making  water  clocks  have  been  investigated  by 
the  same  writers,  and  first  of  all  by  Ctesibius  the  Alexandrian, 
who  also  discovered  the  natural  pressure  of  the  air  and  pneu- 
matic principles.  It  is  worth  while  for  students  to  know  how  these 
discoveries  came  about.  Ctesibius,  born  at  Alexandria,  was  the 
son  of  a barber.  Preeminent  for  natural  ability  and  great  indus- 
try, he  is  said  to  have  amused  himself  with  ingenious  devices. 
For  example,  wishing  to  hang  a mirror  in  his  father’s  shop  in  such 
a way  that,  on  being  lowered  and  raised  again,  its  weight  should 
be  raised  by  means  of  a concealed  cord,  he  employed  the  follow- 
ing mechanical  contrivance. 

3.  Under  the  roof -beam  he  fixed  a wooden  channel  in  which  he 
arranged  a block  of  pulleys.  He  carried  the  cord  along  the  chan- 
nel to  the  corner,  where  he  set  up  some  small  piping.  Into  this  a 


274 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IX 


leaden  ball,  attached  to  the  cord,  was  made  to  descend.  As  the 
weight  fell  into  the  narrow  limits  of  the  pipe,  it  naturally  com- 
pressed the  enclosed  air,  and,  as  its  fall  was  rapid,  it  forced  the 
mass  of  compressed  air  through  the  outlet  into  the  open  air, 
thus  producing  a distinct  sound  by  the  concussion. 

4.  Hence,  Ctesibius,  observing  that  sounds  and  tones  were 
produced  by  the  contact  between  the  free  air  and  that  which  was 
forced  from  the  pipe, made  use  of  this  principle  in  the  construction 
of  the  first  water  organs.  He  also  devised  methods  of  raising 
water,  automatic  contrivances,  and  amusing  things  of  many  kinds, 
including  among  them  the  construction  of  water  clocks.  He  began 
by  making  an  orifice  in  a piece  of  gold,  or  by  perforating  a gem, 
because  these  substances  are  not  worn  by  the  action  of  water,  and 
do  not  collect  dirt  so  as  to  get  stopped  up. 

5.  A regular  flow  of  water  through  the  orifice  raises  an  inverted 
bowl,  called  by  mechanicians  the  “ cork”  or  “ drum.”  To  this  are 
attached  a rack  and  a revolving  drum,  both  fitted  with  teeth  at 
regular  intervals.  These  teeth,  acting  upon  one  another,  induce 
a measured  revolution  and  movement.  Other  racks  and  other 
drums,  similarly  toothed  and  subject  to  the  same  motion,  give 
rise  by  their  revolution  to  various  kinds  of  motions,  by  which 
figures  are  moved,  cones  revolve,  pebbles  or  eggs  fall,  trumpets 
sound,  and  other  incidental  effects  take  place. 

6.  The  hours  are  marked  in  these  clocks  on  a column  or  a pilas- 
ter, and  a figure  emerging  from  the  bottom  points  to  them  with  a 
rod  throughout  the  whole  day.  Their  decrease  or  increase  in  length 
with  the  different  days  and  months,  must  be  adjusted  by  insert- 
ing or  withdrawing  wedges.  The  shutoffs  for  regulating  the 
water  are  constructed  as  follows.  Two  cones  are  made,  one  solid 
and  the  other  hollow,  turned  on  a lathe  so  that  one  will  go 
into  the  other  and  fit  it  perfectly.  A rod  is  used  to  loosen  or  to 
bring  them  together,  thus  causing  the  water  to  flow  rapidly  or 
slowly  into  the  vessels.  According  to  these  rules,  and  by  this 
mechanism,  water  clocks  may  be  constructed  for  use  in  winter. 

7.  But  if  it  proves  that  the  shortening  or  lengthening  of  the 


Chap.  VIII]  SUNDIALS  AND  WATER  CLOCKS 


275 


day  is  not  in  agreement  with  the  insertion  and  removal  of  the 
wedges,  because  the  wedges  may  very  often  cause  errors,  the  fol- 
lowing arrangement  will  have  to  be  made.  Let  the  hours  be 
marked  off  transversely  on  the  column  from  the  analemma,  and 
let  the  lines  of  the  months  also  be  marked  upon  the  column.  Then 
let  the  column  be  made  to  revolve,  in  such  a way  that,  as  it  turns 
continuously  towards  the  figure  and  the  rod  with  which  the 
emerging  figure  points  to  the  hours,  it  may  make  the  hours 
short  or  long  according  to  the  respective  months. 

8.  There  is  also  another  kind  of  winter  dial,  called  the  Ana- 
phoric and  constructed  in  the  following  way.  The  hours,  indi- 
cated by  bronze  rods  in  accordance  with  the  figure  of  the  ana- 
lemma,  radiate  from  a centre  on  the  face.  Circles  are  described 
upon  it,  marking  the  limits  of  the  months.  Behind  these  rods 
there  is  a drum,  on  which  is  drawn  and  painted  the  firmament 
with  the  circle  of  the  signs.  In  drawing  the  figures  of  the  twelve 
celestial  signs,  one  is  represented  larger  and  the  next  smaller, 
proceeding  from  the  centre.  Into  the  back  of  the  drum,  in  the 
middle,  a revolving  axis  is  inserted,  and  round  that  axis  is  wound 
a flexible  bronze  chain,  at  one  end  of  which  hangs  the  “cork” 
which  is  raised  by  the  water,  and  at  the  other  a counterpoise  of 
sand,  equal  in  weight  to  the  “cork.” 

9.  Hence,  the  sand  sinks  as  the  “ cork”  is  raised  by  the  water, 
and  in  sinking  turns  the  axis,  and  the  axis  the  drum.  The  revo- 
lution of  this  drum  causes  sometimes  a larger  and  sometimes  a 
smaller  portion  of  the  circle  of  the  signs  to  indicate,  during  the 
revolutions,  the  proper  length  of  the  hours  corresponding  to  their 
seasons.  For  in  every  one  of  the  signs  there  are  as  many  holes  as 
the  corresponding  month  has  days,  and  a boss,  which  seems  to 
be  holding  the  representation  of  the  sun  on  a dial,  designates  the 
spaces  for  the  hours.  This,  as  it  is  carried  from  hole  to  hole, 
completes  the  circuit  of  a full  month. 

10.  Hence,  just  as  the  sun  during  his  passage  through  the  con- 
stellations makes  the  days  and  hours  longer  or  shorter,  so  the 
boss  on  a dial,  moving  from  point  to  point  in  a direction  contrary 


276 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  IX 


to  that  of  the  revolution  of  the  drum  in  the  middle,  is  carried  day 
by  day  sometimes  over  wider  and  sometimes  over  narrower 
spaces,  giving  a representation  of  the  hours  and  days  within  the 
limits  of  each  month. 

To  manage  the  water  so  that  it  may  flow  regularly,  we  must 
proceed  as  follows. 

11.  Inside,  behind  the  face  of  the  dial,  place  a reservoir,  and  let 
the  water  run  down  into  it  through  a pipe,  and  let  it  have  a hole 
at  the  bottom.  Fastened  to  it  is  a bronze  drum  with  an  opening 
through  which  the  water  flows  into  it  from  the  reservoir.  En- 
closed in  this  drum  there  is  a smaller  one,  the  two  being  per- 
fectly jointed  together  by  tenon  and  socket,  in  such  a way  that 
the  smaller  drum  revolves  closely  but  easily  in  the  larger,  like  a 
stopcock. 

12.  On  the  lip  of  the  larger  drum  there  are  three  hundred  and 
sixty-five  points,  marked  off  at  equal  intervals.  The  rim  of  the 
smaller  one  has  a tongue  fixed  on  its  circumference,  with  the  tip 
directed  towards  those  points;  and  also  in  this  rim  is  a small 
opening,  through  which  water  runs  into  the  drum  and  keeps 
the  works  going.  The  figures  of  the  celestial  signs  being  on  the 
lip  of  the  larger  drum,  and  this  drum  being  motionless,  let  the 
sign  Cancer  be  drawn  at  the  top,  with  Capricornus  perpendicular 
to  it  at  the  bottom,  Libra  at  the  spectator’s  right,  Aries  at  his 
left,  and  let  the  other  signs  be  given  places  between  them  as  they 
are  seen  in  the  heavens. 

13.  Hence,  when  the  sun  is  in  Capricornus,  the  tongue  on  the 
rim  touches  every  day  one  of  the  points  in  Capricornus  on  the  lip 
of  the  larger  drum,  and  is  perpendicular  to  the  strong  pressure  of 
the  running  water.  So  the  water  is  quickly  driven  through  the 
opening  in  the  rim  to  the  inside  of  the  vessel,  which,  receiving  it 
and  soon  becoming  full,  shortens  and  diminishes  the  length  of  the 
days  and  hours.  But  when,  owing  to  the  daily  revolution  of  the 
smaller  drum,  its  tongue  reaches  the  points  in  Aquarius,  the  open- 
ing will  no  longer  be  perpendicular,  and  the  water  must  give  up 
its  vigorous  flow  and  run  in  a slower  stream.  Thus,  the  less  the 


Chap.  VIII]  SUNDIALS  AND  WATER  CLOCKS 


277 


velocity  with  which  the  vessel  receives  the  water,  the  more  the 
length  of  the  days  is  increased. 

14.  Then  the  opening  in  the  rim  passes  from  point  to  point  in 
Aquarius  and  Pisces,  as  though  going  upstairs,  and  when  it 
reaches  the  end  of  the  first  eighth  of  Aries,  the  fall  of  the  water 
is  of  medium  strength,  indicating  the  equinoctial  hours.  From 
Aries  the  opening  passes,  with  the  revolution  of  the  drum, 
through  Taurus  and  Gemini  to  the  highest  point  at  the  end  of 
the  first  eighth  of  Cancer,  and  when  it  reaches  that  point,  the 
power  diminishes,  and  hence,  with  the  slower  flow,  its  delay 
lengthens  the  days  in  the  sign  Cancer,  producing  the  hours 
of  the  summer  solstice.  From  Cancer  it  begins  to  decline,  and 
during  its  return  it  passes  through  Leo  and  Virgo  to  the  points 
at  the  end  of  the  first  eighth  of  Libra,  gradually  shortening  and 
diminishing  the  length  of  the  hours,  until  it  comes  to  the  points 
in  Libra,  where  it  makes  the  hours  equinoctial  once  more. 

15.  Finally,  the  opening  comes  down  more  rapidly  through 
Scorpio  and  Sagittarius,  and  on  its  return  from  its  revolution  to 
the  end  of  the  first  eighth  of  Capricornus,  the  velocity  of  the 
stream  renews  once  more  the  short  hours  of  the  winter  solstice. 

The  rules  and  forms  of  construction  employed  in  designing 
dials  have  now  been  described  as  well  as  I could.  It  remains  to 
give  an  account  of  machines  and  their  principles.  In  order  to 
make  my  treatise  on  architecture  complete,  I will  begin  to  write 
on  this  subject  in  the  following  book. 


BOOK  X 


BOOK  X 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  In  the  famous  and  important  Greek  city  of  Ephesus  there  is 
said  to  be  an  ancient  ancestral  law,  the  terms  of  which  are  severe, 
but  its  justice  is  not  inequitable.  When  an  architect  accepts  the 
charge  of  a public  work,  he  has  to  promise  what  the  cost  of  it  will 
be.  His  estimate  is  handed  to  the  magistrate,  and  his  property  is 
pledged  as  security  until  the  work  is  done.  When  it  is  finished,  if 
the  outlay  agrees  with  his  statement,  he  is  complimented  by  de- 
crees and  marks  of  honour.  If  no  more  than  a fourth  has  to  be 
added  to  his  estimate,  it  is  furnished  by  the  treasury  and  no  pen- 
alty is  inflicted.  But  when  more  than  one  fourth  has  to  be  spent 
in  addition  on  the  work,  the  money  required  to  finish  it  is  taken 
from  his  property. 

2.  Would  to  God  that  this  were  also  a law  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple, not  merely  for  public,  but  also  for  private  buildings.  For  the 
ignorant  would  no  longer  run  riot  with  impunity,  but  men  who 
are  well  qualified  by  an  exact  scientific  training  would  unques- 
tionably adopt  the  profession  of  architecture.  Gentlemen  would 
not  be  misled  into  limitless  and  prodigal  expenditure,  even  to 
ejectments  from  their  estates,  and  the  architects  themselves 
could  be  forced,  by  fear  of  the  penalty,  to  be  more  careful  in  cal- 
culating and  stating  the  limit  of  expense,  so  that  gentlemen 
would  procure  their  buildings  for  that  which  they  had  expected, 
or  by  adding  only  a little  more.  It  is  true  that  men  who  can 
afford  to  devote  four  hundred  thousand  to  a work  may  hold  on, 
if  they  have  to  add  another  hundred  thousand,  from  the  pleasure 
which  the  hope  of  finishing  it  gives  them;  but  if  they  are  loaded 
with  a fifty  per  cent  increase,  or  with  an  even  greater  expense, 
they  lose  hope,  sacrifice  what  they  have  already  spent,  and  are 
compelled  to  leave  off,  broken  in  fortune  and  in  spirit. 


282 


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[Book  X 


3.  This  fault  appears  not  only  in  the  matter  of  buildings,  but 
also  in  the  shows  given  by  magistrates,  whether  of  gladiators  in 
the  forum  or  of  plays  on  the  stage.  Here  neither  delay  nor  post- 
ponement is  permissible,  but  the  necessities  of  the  case  require 
that  everything  should  be  ready  at  a fixed  time,  — the  seats  for 
the  audience,  the  awning  drawn  over  them,  and  whatever,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  customs  of  the  stage,  is  provided  by  machinery 
to  please  the  eye  of  the  people.  These  matters  require  careful 
thought  and  planning  by  a well  trained  intellect;  for  none  of  them 
can  be  accomplished  without  machinery,  and  without  hard  study 
skilfully  applied  in  various  ways. 

4.  Therefore,  since  such  are  our  traditions  and  established 
practices,  it  is  obviously  fitting  that  the  plans  should  be  worked 
out  carefully,  and  with  the  greatest  attention,  before  the  struc- 
tures are  begun.  Consequently,  as  we  have  no  law  or  customary 
practice  to  compel  this,  and  as  every  year  both  praetors  and 
aediles  have  to  provide  machinery  for  the  festivals,  I have 
thought  it  not  out  of  place,  Emperor,  since  I have  treated  of  build- 
ings in  the  earlier  books,  to  set  forth  and  teach  in  this,  which 
forms  the  final  conclusion  of  my  treatise,  the  principles  which 
govern  machines. 


CHAPTER  I 


MACHINES  AND  IMPLEMENTS 

1.  A machine  is  a combination  of  timbers  fastened  together, 
chiefly  efficacious  in  moving  great  weights.  Such  a machine  is  set 
in  motion  on  scientific  principles  in  circular  rounds,  which  the 
Greeks  call  kv/cXl/ctj  /civrja *?•  There  is,  however,  a class  intended 
for  climbing,  termed  in  Greek  bucpo^arucov , another  worked  by 
air,  which  with  them  is  called  7rvevpLaTt/c6v9  and  a third  for  hoist- 
ing; this  the  Greeks  named  /3apov\rc6< ?.  In  the  climbing  class  are 
machines  so  disposed  that  one  can  safely  climb  up  high,  by  means 
of  timbers  set  up  on  end  and  connected  by  crossbeams,  in  order 
to  view  operations.  In  the  pneumatic  class,  air  is  forced  by  pres- 
sure to  produce  sounds  and  tones  as  in  an  opyavov. 

2.  In  the  hoisting  class,  heavy  weights  are  removed  by  ma- 
chines which  raise  them  up  and  set  them  in  position.  The  climb- 
ing machine  displays  no  scientific  principle,  but  merely  a spirit  of 
daring.  It  is  held  together  by  dowels  and  crossbeams  and  twisted 
lashings  and  supporting  props.  A machine  that  gets  its  motive 
power  by  pneumatic  pressure  will  produce  pretty  effects  by  sci- 
entific refinements.  But  the  hoisting  machine  has  opportunities 
for  usefulness  which  are  greater  and  full  of  grandeur,  and  it  is  of 
the  highest  efficacy  when  used  with  intelligence. 

3.  Some  of  these  act  on  the  principle  of  the  pLrj^avrj,  others  on 
that  of  the  opyavov . The  difference  between  “machines”  and 
“ engines”  is  obviously  this,  that  machines  need  more  workmen 
and  greater  power  to  make  them  take  effect,  as  for  instance 
ballistae  and  the  beams  of  presses.  Engines,  on  the  other  hand, 
accomplish  their  purpose  at  the  intelligent  touch  of  a single 
workman,  as  the  scorpio  or  anisocycli  when  they  are  turned. 
Therefore  engines,  as  well  as  machines,  are,  in  principle,  practical 
necessities,  without  which  nothing  can  be  unattended  with  diffi- 
culties. 


284 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


4.  All  machinery  is  derived  from  nature,  and  is  founded  on  the 
teaching  and  instruction  of  the  revolution  of  the  firmament.  Let 
us  but  consider  the  connected  revolutions  of  the  sun,  the  moon, 
and  the  five  planets,  without  the  revolution  of  which,  due  to 
mechanism,  we  should  not  have  had  the  alternation  of  day  and 
night,  nor  the  ripening  of  fruits.  Thus,  when  our  ancestors  had 
seen  that  this  was  so,  they  took  their  models  from  nature,  and 
by  imitating  them  were  led  on  by  divine  facts,  until  they  per- 
fected the  contrivances  which  are  so  serviceable  in  our  life.  Some 
things,  with  a view  to  greater  convenience,  they  worked  out  by 
means  of  machines  and  their  revolutions,  others  by  means  of  en- 
gines, and  so,  whatever  they  found  to  be  useful  for  investigations, 
for  the  arts,  and  for  established  practices,  they  took  care  to  im- 
prove step  by  step  on  scientific  principles. 

5.  Let  us  take  first  a necessary  invention,  such  as  clothing,  and 
see  how  the  combination  of  warp  and  woof  on  the  loom,  which 
does  its  work  on  the  principle  of  an  engine,  not  only  protects 
the  body  by  covering  it,  but  also  gives  it  honourable  apparel. 
We  should  not  have  had  food  in  abundance  unless  yokes  and 
ploughs  for  oxen,  and  for  all  draught  animals,  had  been  invented. 
If  there  had  been  no  provision  of  windlasses,  pressbeams,  and 
levers  for  presses,  we  could  not  have  had  the  shining  oil,  nor  the 
fruit  of  the  vine  to  give  us  pleasure,  and  these  things  could  not 
be  transported  on  land  without  the  invention  of  the  mechanism 
of  carts  or  waggons,  nor  on  the  sea  without  that  of  ships. 

6.  The  discovery  of  the  method  of  testing  weights  by  steel- 
yards and  balances  saves  us  from  fraud,  by  introducing  honest 
practices  into  life.  There  are  also  innumerable  ways  of  employ- 
ing machinery  about  which  it  seems  unnecessary  to  speak,  since 
they  are  at  hand  every  day;  such  as  mills,  blacksmiths’  bellows, 
carriages,  gigs,  turning  lathes,  and  other  things  which  are  habitu- 
ally used  as  general  conveniences.  Hence,  we  shall  begin  by  ex- 
plaining those  that  rarely  come  to  hand,  so  that  they  may  be  un- 
derstood. 


Chap.  II] 


HOISTING  MACHINES 


285 


CHAPTER  II 

HOISTING  MACHINES 

1.  First  we  shall  treat  of  those  machines  which  are  of  neces- 
sity made  ready  when  temples  and  public  buildings  are  to  be  con- 
structed. Two  timbers  are  provided,  strong  enough  for  the  weight 
of  the  load.  They  are  fastened  together  at  the  upper  end  by 
a bolt,  then  spread  apart  at  the  bottom,  and  so  set  up,  being  kept 
upright  by  ropes  attached  at  the  upper  ends  and  fixed  at  intervals 
all  round.  At  the  top  is  fastened  a block,  which  some  call  a 
“ rechamus.”  In  the  block  two  sheaves  are  enclosed,  turning  on 
axles.  The  traction  rope  is  carried  over  the  sheave  at  the  top, 
then  let  fall  and  passed  round  a sheave  in  a block  below.  Then  it 
is  brought  back  to  a sheave  at  the  bottom  of  the  upper  block,  and 
so  it  goes  down  to  the  lower  block,  where  it  is  fastened  through  a 
hole  in  that  block.  The  other  end  of  the  rope  is  brought  back  and 
down  between  the  legs  of  the  machine. 

2.  Socket-pieces  are  nailed  to  the  hinder  faces  of  the  squared 
timbers  at  the  point  where  they  are  spread  apart,  and  the  ends  of 
the  windlass  are  inserted  into  them  so  that  the  axles  may  turn 
freely.  Close  to  each  end  of  the  windlass  are  two  holes,  so  ad- 
justed that  handspikes  can  be  fitted  into  them.  To  the  bottom 
of  the  lower  block  are  fastened  shears  made  of  iron,  whose  prongs 
are  brought  to  bear  upon  the  stones,  which  have  holes  bored  in 
them.  When  one  end  of  the  rope  is  fastened  to  the  windlass,  and 
the  latter  is  turned  round  by  working  the  handspikes,  the  rope 
winds  round  the  windlass,  gets  taut,  and  thus  it  raises  the  load 
to  the  proper  height  and  to  its  place  in  the  work. 

3.  This  kind  of  machinery,  revolving  with  three  sheaves,  is 
called  a trispast.  When  there  are  two  sheaves  turning  in  the 
block  beneath  and  three  in  the  upper,  the  machine  is  termed  a 
pentaspast.  But  if  we  have  to  furnish  machines  for  heavier  loads* 
we  must  use  timbers  of  greater  length  and  thickness,  providing 
them  with  correspondingly  large  bolts  at  the  top,  and  windlasses 


286 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


turning  at  the  bottom.  When  these  are  ready,  let  forestays  be 
attached  and  left  lying  slack  in  front;  let  the  backstays  be  car- 
ried over  the  shoulders  of  the  machine  to  some  distance,  and,  if 
there  is  nothing  to  which  they  can  be  fastened,  sloping  piles 
should  be  driven,  the  ground  rammed  down  all  round  to  fix  them 
firmly,  and  the  ropes  made  fast  to  them. 

4.  A block  should  then  be  attached  by  a stout  cord  to  the  top 
of  the  machine,  and  from  that  point  a rope  should  be  carried  to  a 
pile,  and  to  a block  tied  to  the  pile.  Let  the  rope  be  put  in  round 
the  sheave  of  this  block,  and  brought  back  to  the  block  that  is 
fastened  at  the  top  of  the  machine.  Round  its  sheave  the  rope 
should  be  passed,  and  then  should  go  down  from  the  top,  and 
back  to  the  windlass,  which  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  machine,  and 
there  be  fastened.  The  windlass  is  now  to  be  turned  by  means 
of  the  handspikes,  and  it  will  raise  the  machine  of  itself  without 
danger.  Thus,  a machine  of  the  larger  kind  will  be  set  in  posi- 
tion, with  its  ropes  in  their  places  about  it,  and  its  stays  at- 
tached to  the  piles.  Its  blocks  and  traction  ropes  are  arranged 
as  described  above. 

5.  But  if  the  loads  of  material  for  the  work  are  still  more  co- 
lossal in  size  and  weight,  we  shall  not  entrust  them  to  a windlass, 
but  set  in  an  axle-tree,  held  by  sockets  as  the  windlass  was,  and 
carrying  on  its  centre  a large  drum,  which  some  term  a wheel, 
but  the  Greeks  call  it  aficf) or  7 repiOr/KLov. 

6.  And  the  blocks  in  such  machines  are  not  arranged  in  the 
same,  but  in  a different  manner;  for  the  rows  of  sheaves  in  them 
are  doubled,  both  at  the  bottom  and  at  the  top.  The  traction 
rope  is  passed  through  a hole  in  the  lower  block,  in  such  a way  that 
the  two  ends  of  the  rope  are  of  equal  length  when  it  is  stretched 
out,  and  both  portions  are  held  there  at  the  lower  block  by  a cord 
which  is  passed  round  them  and  lashed  so  that  they  cannot  come 
out  either  to  the  right  or  the  left.  Then  the  ends  of  the  rope  are 
brought  up  into  the  block  at  the  top  from  the  outside,  and  passed 
down  over  its  lower  sheaves,  and  so  return  to  the  bottom,  and  are 
passed  from  the  inside  to  the  sheaves  in  the  lowest  block,  and 


Chap.  II] 


HOISTING  MACHINES 


287 

then  are  brought  up  on  the  right  and  left,  and  return  to  the  top 
and  round  the  highest  set  of  sheaves. 

7.  Passing  over  these  from  the  outside,  they  are  then  carried 
to  the  right  and  left  of  the  drum  on  the  axle-tree,  and  are  tied 
there  so  as  to  stay  fast.  Then  another  rope  is  wound  round  the 
drum  and  carried  to  a capstan,  and  when  that  is  turned,  it  turns 
the  drum  and  the  axle-tree,  the  ropes  get  taut  as  they  wind  round 
regularly,  and  thus  they  raise  the  loads  smoothly  and  with  no 
danger.  But  if  a larger  drum  is  placed  either  in  the  middle  or  at 
one  side,  without  any  capstan,  men  can  tread  in  it  and  accomplish 
the  work  more  expeditiously. 

8.  There  is  also  another  kind  of  machine,  ingenious  enough  and 
easy  to  use  with  speed,  but  only  experts  can  work  with  it.  It  con- 
sists of  a single  timber,  which  is  set  up  and  held  in  place  by  stays 
on  four  sides.  Two  cheeks  are  nailed  on  below  the  stays,  a block 
is  fastened  by  ropes  above  the  cheeks,  and  a straight  piece  of 
wood  about  two  feet  long,  six  digits  wide,  and  four  digits  thick, 
is  put  under  the  block.  The  blocks  used  have  each  three  rows 
of  sheaves  side  by  side.  Hence  three  traction  ropes  are  fastened 
at  the  top  of  the  machine.  Then  they  are  brought  to  the  block 
at  the  bottom,  and  passed  from  the  inside  round  the  sheaves  that 
are  nearest  the  top  of  it.  Then  they  are  brought  back  to  the  up- 
per block,  and  passed  inwards  from  outside  round  the  sheaves 
nearest  the  bottom. 

9.  On  coming  down  to  the  block  at  the  bottom,  they  are  car- 
ried round  its  second  row  of  sheaves  from  the  inside  to  the  out- 
side, and  brought  back  to  the  second  row  at  the  top,  passing 
round  it  and  returning  to  the  bottom;  then  from  the  bottom  they 
are  carried  to  the  summit,  where  they  pass  round  the  highest  row 
of  sheaves,  and  then  return  to  the  bottom  of  the  machine.  At  the 
foot  of  the  machine  a third  block  is  attached.  The  Greeks  call  it 
eiraycdv,  but  our  people  artemon.”  This  block  fastened  at  the 
foot  of  the  machine  has  three  sheaves  in  it,  round  which  the 
ropes  are  passed  and  then  delivered  to  men  to  pull.  Thus,  three 
rows  of  men,  pulling  without  a capstan,  can  quickly  raise  the 
load  to  the  top. 


288 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


10.  This  kind  of  machine  is  called  a polyspast,  because  of  the 
many  revolving  sheaves  to  which  its  dexterity  and  despatch  are 
due.  There  is  also  this  advantage  in  the  erection  of  only  a single 
timber,  that  by  previously  inclining  it  to  the  right  or  left  as  much 
as  one  wishes,  the  load  can  be  set  down  at  one  side. 

All  these  kinds  of  machinery  described  above  are,  in  their  prin- 
ciples, suited  not  only  to  the  purposes  mentioned,  but  also  to  the 
loading  and  unloading  of  ships,  some  kinds  being  set  upright,  and 
others  placed  horizontally  on  revolving  platforms.  On  the  same 
principle,  ships  can  be  hauled  ashore  by  means  of  arrangements 
of  ropes  and  blocks  used  on  the  ground,  without  setting  up  tim- 
bers. 

11.  It  may  also  not  be  out  of  place  to  explain  the  ingenious 
procedure  of  Chersiphron.  Desiring  to  convey  the  shafts  for 
the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  from  the  stone  quarries,  and  not 
trusting  to  carts,  lest  their  wheels  should  be  engulfed  on  account 
of  the  great  weights  of  the  load  and  the  softness  of  the  roads  in 
the  plain,  he  tried  the  following  plan.  Using  four-inch  timbers, 
he  joined  two  of  them,  each  as  long  as  the  shaft,  with  two  cross- 
pieces set  between  them,  dovetailing  all  together,  and  then  leaded 
iron  gudgeons  shaped  like  dovetails  into  the  ends  of  the  shafts, 
as  dowels  are  leaded,  and  in  the  woodwork  he  fixed  rings  to  con- 
tain the  pivots,  and  fastened  wooden  cheeks  to  the  ends.  The 
pivots,  being  enclosed  in  the  rings,  turned  freely.  So,  when  yokes 
of  oxen  began  to  draw  the  four-inch  frame,  they  made  the  shaft 
revolve  constantly,  turning  it  by  means  of  the  pivots  and  rings. 

12.  When  they  had  thus  transported  all  the  shafts,  and  it 
became  necessary  to  transport  the  architraves,  Chersiphron’s  son 
Metagenes  extended  the  same  principle  from  the  transporta- 
tion of  the  shafts  to  the  bringing  down  of  the  architraves.  He 
made  wheels,  each  about  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  and  enclosed 
the  ends  of  the  architraves  in  the  wheels.  In  the  ends  he  fixed 
pivots  and  rings  in  the  same  way.  So  when  the  four-inch  frames 
were  drawn  by  oxen,  the  wheels  turned  on  the  pivots  enclosed  in 
the  rings,  and  the  architraves,  which  were  enclosed  like  axles  in 


Chap.  II] 


HOISTING  MACHINES 


289 


the  wheels,  soon  reached  the  building,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
shafts.  The  rollers  used  for  smoothing  the  walks  in  palaestrae 
will  serve  as  an  example  of  this  method.  But  it  could  not  have 
been  employed  unless  the  distance  had  been  short;  for  it  is  not 
more  than  eight  miles  from  the  stone-quarries  to  the  temple, 
and  there  is  no  hill,  but  an  uninterrupted  plain. 

13.  In  our  own  times,  however,  when  the  pedestal  of  the  colos- 
sal Apollo  in  his  temple  had  cracked  with  age,  they  were  afraid 
that  the  statue  would  fall  and  be  broken,  and  so  they  contracted 
for  the  cutting  of  a pedestal  from  the  same  quarries.  The  contract 
was  taken  by  one  Paconius.  This  pedestal  was  twelve  feet  long, 
eight  feet  wide,  and  six  feet  high.  Paconius,  with  confident  pride, 
did  not  transport  it  by  the  method  of  Metagenes,  but  determined 
to  make  a machine  of  a different  sort,  though  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple. 

14.  He  made  wheels  of  about  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  in 
these  wheels  he  enclosed  the  ends  of  the  stone;  then  he  fastened 
two-inch  crossbars  from  wheel  to  wheel  round  the  stone,  encom- 
passing it,  so  that  there  was  an  interval  of  not  more  than  one  foot 
between  bar  and  bar.  Then  he  coiled  a rope  round  the  bars, 
yoked  up  his  oxen,  and  began  to  draw  on  the  rope.  Conse- 
quently as  it  uncoiled,  it  did  indeed  cause  the  wheels  to  turn, 
but  it  could  not  draw  them  in  a line  straight  along  the  road,  but 
kept  swerving  out  to  one  side.  Hence  it  was  necessary  to  draw 
the  machine  back  again.  Thus,  by  this  drawing  to  and  fro,  Pa- 
conius got  into  such  financial  embarrassment  that  he  became 
insolvent. 

15.  I will  digress  a bit  and  explain  how  these  stone-quarries 
were  discovered.  Pixodorus  was  a shepherd  who  lived  in  that 
vicinity.  When  the  people  of  Ephesus  were  planning  to  build  the 
temple  of  Diana  in  marble,  and  debating  whether  to  get  the  mar- 
ble from  Paros,  Proconnesus,  Heraclea,  or  Thasos,  Pixodorus 
drove  out  his  sheep  and  was  feeding  his  flock  in  that  very 
spot.  Then  two  rams  ran  at  each  other,  and,  each  passing  the 
other,  one  of  them,  after  his  charge,  struck  his  horns  against  a 


290 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


rock,  from  which  a fragment  of  extremely  white  colour  was  dis- 
lodged. So  it  is  said  that  Pixodorus  left  his  sheep  in  the  mountains 
and  ran  down  to  Ephesus  carrying  the  fragment,  since  that  very 
thing  was  the  question  of  the  moment.  Therefore  they  imme- 
diately decreed  honours  to  him  and  changed  his  name,  so  that 
instead  of  Pixodorus  he  should  be  called  Evangelus.  And  to  this 
day  the  chief  magistrate  goes  out  to  that  very  spot  every  month 
and  offers  sacrifice  to  him,  and  if  he  does  not,  he  is  punished. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  MOTION 

1.  I have  briefly  set  forth  what  I thought  necessary  about  the 
principles  of  hoisting  machines.  In  them  two  different  things, 
unlike  each  other,  work  together,  as  elements  of  their  motion 
and  power,  to  produce  these  effects.  One  of  them  is  the  right  line, 
which  the  Greeks  term  evOela ; the  other  is  the  circle,  which 
the  Greeks  call  /cv/cXcDTrj ; but  in  point  of  fact,  neither  rectilinear 
without  circular  motion,  nor  revolutions,  without  rectilinear 
motion,  can  accomplish  the  raising  of  loads.  I will  explain  this, 
so  that  it  may  be  understood. 

2.  As  centres,  axles  are  inserted  into  the  sheaves,  and  these  are 
fastened  in  the  blocks;  a rope  carried  over  the  sheaves,  drawn 
straight  down,  and  fastened  to  a windlass,  causes  the  load  to 
move  upward  from  its  place  as  the  handspikes  are  turned.  The 
pivots  of  this  windlass,  lying  as  centres  in  right  lines  in  its  socket- 
pieces,  and  the  handspikes  inserted  in  its  holes,  make  the 
load  rise  when  the  ends  of  the  windlass  revolve  in  a circle  like  a 
lathe.  Just  so,  when  an  iron  lever  is  applied  to  a weight  which 
a great  many  hands  cannot  move,  with  the  fulcrum,  which  the 
Greeks  call  vi ro^o^Xtor,  lying  as  a centre  in  a right  line  under  the 
lever,  and  with  the  tongue  of  the  lever  placed  under  the  weight, 
one  man’s  strength,  bearing  down  upon  the  head  of  it,  heaves 
up  the  weight. 


291 


Chap.  Ill]  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  MOTION 

3.  For,  as  the  shorter  fore  part  of  the  lever  goes  under  the 
weight  from  the  fulcrum  that  forms  the  centre,  the  head  of  it, 
which  is  farther  away  from  that  centre,  on  being  depressed,  is 
made  to  describe  a circular  movement,  and  thus  by  pressure 
brings  to  an  equilibrium  the  weight  of  a very  great  load  by  means 
of  a few  hands.  Again,  if  the  tongue  of  an  iron  lever  is  placed 
under  a weight,  and  its  head  is  not  pushed  down,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  heaved  up,  the  tongue,  supported  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  will  treat  that  as  the  weight,  and  the  edge  of  the  weight 
itself  as  the  fulcrum.  Thus,  not  so  easily  as  by  pushing  down,  but 
by  motion  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  weight  of  the  load  will 
nevertheless  be  raised.  If,  therefore,  the  tongue  of  a lever  lying 
on  a fulcrum  goes  too  far  under  the  weight,  and  its  head  exerts 
its  pressure  too  near  the  centre,  it  will  not  be  able  to  elevate  the 
weight,  nor  can  it  do  so  unless,  as  described  above,  the  length  of 
the  lever  is  brought  to  equilibrium  by  the  depression  of  its  head. 

4.  This  may  be  seen  from  the  balances  that  we  call  steelyards. 
When  the  handle  is  set  as  a centre  close  to  the  end  from  which 
the  scale  hangs,  and  the  counterpoise  is  moved  along  towards  the 
other  arm  of  the  beam,  shifting  from  point  to  point  as  it  goes 
farther  or  even  reaches  the  extremity,  a small  and  inferior  weight 
becomes  equal  to  a very  heavy  object  that  is  being  weighed,  on 
account  of  the  equilibrium  that  is  due  to  the  levelling  of  the 
beam.  Thus,  as  it  withdraws  from  the  centre,  a small  and  com- 
paratively light  counterpoise,  slowly  turning  the  scale,  makes  a 
greater  amount  of  weight  rise  gently  upwards  from  below. 

5.  So,  too,  the  pilot  of  the  biggest  merchantman,  grasping 
the  steering  oar  by  its  handle,  which  the  Greeks  call  oi'af,  and 
with  one  hand  bringing  it  to  the  turning  point,  according  to  the 
rules  of  his  art,  by  pressure  about  a centre,  can  turn  the  ship, 
although  she  may  be  laden  with  a very  large  or  even  enormous 
burden  of  merchandise  and  provisions.  And  when  her  sails  are 
set  only  halfway  up  the  mast,  a ship  cannot  run  quickly;  but 
when  the  yard  is  hoisted  to  the  top,  she  makes  much  quicker 
progress,  because  then  the  sails  get  the  wind,  not  when  they  are 


VITRUVIUS 


292 


[Book  X 


too  close  to  the  heel  of  the  mast,  which  represents  the  centre,  but 
when  they  have  moved  farther  away  from  it  to  the  top. 

6.  As  a lever  thrust  under  a weight  is  harder  to  manage,  and 
does  not  put  forth  its  strength,  if  the  pressure  is  exerted  at  the 
centre,  but  easily  raises  the  weight  when  the  extreme  end  of  it  is 
pushed  down,  so  sails  that  are  only  halfway  up  have  less  effect, 
but  when  they  get  farther  away  from  the  centre,  and  are  hoisted 
to  the  very  top  of  the  mast,  the  pressure  at  the  top  forces  the 
ship  to  make  greater  progress,  though  the  wind  is  no  stronger 
but  just  the  same.  Again,  take  the  case  of  oars,  which  are  fas- 
tened to  the  tholes  by  loops,  — when  they  are  pushed  forward  and 
drawn  back  by  the  hand,  if  the  ends  of  the  blades  are  at  some 
distance  from  the  centre,  the  oars  foam  with  the  waves  of  the  sea 
and  drive  the  ship  forward  in  a straight  line  with  a mighty  im- 
pulse, while  her  prow  cuts  through  the  rare  water. 

7.  And  when  the  heaviest  burdens  are  carried  on  poles  by  four 
or  six  porters  at  a time,  they  find  the  centres  of  balance  at  the 
very  middle  of  the  poles,  so  that,  by  distributing  the  dead  weight 
of  the  burden  according  to  a definitely  proportioned  division, 
each  labourer  may  have  an  equal  share  to  carry  on  his  neck.  For 
the  poles,  from  which  the  straps  for  the  burden  of  the  four 
porters  hang,  are  marked  off  at  their  centres  by  nails,  to  prevent 
the  straps  from  slipping  to  one  side.  If  they  shift  beyond  the 
mark  at  the  centre,  they  weigh  heavily  upon  the  place  to  which 
they  have  come  nearer,  like  the  weight  of  a steelyard  when  it 
moves  from  the  point  of  equilibrium  towards  the  end  of  the 
weighing  apparatus. 

8.  In  the  same  way,  oxen  have  an  equal  draught  when  their 
yoke  is  adjusted  at  its  middle  by  the  yokestrap  to  the  pole.  But 
when  their  strength  is  not  the  same,  and  the  stronger  outdoes  the 
other,  the  strap  is  shifted  so  as  to  make  one  side  of  the  yoke 
longer,  which  helps  the  weaker  ox.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  both 
poles  and  yokes,  when  the  straps  are  not  fastened  at  the  middle, 
but  at  one  side,  the  farther  the  strap  moves  from  the  middle, 
the  shorter  it  makes  one  side,  and  the  longer  the  other.  So,  if  both 


Chap.  IV]  ENGINES  FOR  RAISING  WATER 


293 


ends  are  carried  round  in  circles,  using  as  a centre  the  point  to 
which  the  strap  has  been  brought,  the  longer  end  will  describe 
a larger,  and  the  shorter  end  a smaller  circle. 

9.  Just  as  smaller  wheels  move  harder  and  with  greater  diffi- 
culty than  larger  ones,  so,  in  the  case  of  the  poles  and  yokes,  the 
parts  where  the  interval  from  centre  to  end  is  less,  bear  down 
hard  upon  the  neck,  but  where  the  distance  from  the  same  centre 
is  greater,  they  ease  the  burden  both  for  draught  and  carriage. 
As  in  all  these  cases  motion  is  obtained  by  means  of  right  lines 
at  the  centre  and  by  circles,  so  also  farm  waggons,  travelling 
carriages,  drums,  mills,  screws,  scorpiones,  ballistae,  pressbeams, 
and  all  other  machines,  produce  the  results  intended,  on  the  same 
principles,  by  turning  about  a rectilinear  axis  and  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  a circle. 


CHAPTER  IV 

ENGINES  FOR  RAISING  WATER 

1.  I shall  now  explain  the  making  of  the  different  kinds  of 
engines  which  have  been  invented  for  raising  water,  and  will  first 
speak  of  the  tympanum.  Although  it  does  not  lift  the  water  high, 
it  raises  a great  quantity  very  quickly.  An  axle  is  fashioned  on  a 
lathe  or  with  the  compasses,  its  ends  are  shod  with  iron  hoops, 
and  it  carries  round  its  middle  a tympanum  made  of  boards 
joined  together.  It  rests  on  posts  which  have  pieces  of  iron  on 
them  under  the  ends  of  the  axle.  In  the  interior  of  this  tympanum 
there  are  eight  crosspieces  set  at  intervals,  extending  from  the 
axle  to  the  circumference  of  the  tympanum,  and  dividing  the 
space  in  the  tympanum  into  equal  compartments. 

2.  Planks  are  nailed  round  the  face  of  it,  leaving  six-inch 
apertures  to  admit  the  water.  At  one  side  of  it  there  are  also 
holes,  like  those  of  a dovecot,  next  to  the  axle,  one  for  each  com- 
partment. After  being  smeared  with  pitch  like  a ship,  the  thing  is 
turned  by  the  tread  of  men,  and  raising  the  water  by  means  of  the 
apertures  in  the  face  of  the  tympanum,  delivers  it  through  the 


294 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


holes  next  to  the  axle  into  a wooden  trough  set  underneath,  with  a 
conduit  joined  to  it.  Thus,  a large  quantity  of  water  is  furnished 
for  irrigation  in  gardens,  or  for  supplying  the  needs  of  saltworks. 

3.  But  when  it  has  to  be  raised  higher,  the  same  principle  will 
be  modified  as  follows.  A wheel  on  an  axle  is  to  be  made,  large 
enough  to  reach  the  necessary  height.  All  round  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  wheel  there  will  be  cubical  boxes,  made  tight  with 
pitch  and  wax.  So,  when  the  wheel  is  turned  by  treading,  the 
boxes,  carried  up  full  and  again  returning  to  the  bottom,  will  of 
themselves  discharge  into  the  reservoir  what  they  have  carried 
up. 

4.  But,  if  it  has  to  be  supplied  to  a place  still  more  high,  a 
double  iron  chain,  which  will  reach  the  surface  when  let  down,  is 
passed  round  the  axle  of  the  same  wheel,  with  bronze  buckets 
attached  to  it,  each  holding  about  six  pints.  The  turning  of  the 
wheel,  winding  the  chain  round  the  axle,  will  carry  the  buckets  to 
the  top,  and  as  they  pass  above  the  axle  they  must  tip  over  and 
deliver  into  the  reservoir  what  they  have  carried  up. 


CHAPTER  V 

WATER  WHEELS  AND  WATER  MILLS 

1.  Wheels  on  the  principles  that  have  been  described  above 
are  also  constructed  in  rivers.  Round  their  faces  floatboards  are 
fixed,  which,  on  being  struck  by  the  current  of  the  river,  make  the 
wheel  turn  as  they  move,  and  thus,  by  raising  the  water  in  the 
boxes  and  bringing  it  to  the  top,  they  accomplish  the  necessary 
work  through  being  turned  by  the  mere  impulse  of  the  river, 
without  any  treading  on  the  part  of  workmen. 

2.  Water  mills  are  turned  on  the  same  principle.  Everything  is 
the  same  in  them,  except  that  a drum  with  teeth  is  fixed  into  one 
end  of  the  axle.  It  is  set  vertically  on  its  edge,  and  turns  in  the 
same  plane  with  the  wheel.  Next  to  this  larger  drum  there  is  a 
smaller  one,  also  with  teeth,  but  set  horizontally,  and  this  is 


Chap.  VI] 


THE  WATER  SCREW 


295 


attached  (to  the  millstone).  Thus  the  teeth  of  the  drum  which  is 
fixed  to  the  axle  make  the  teeth  of  the  horizontal  drum  move,  and 
cause  the  mill  to  turn.  A hopper,  hanging  over  this  contrivance, 
supplies  the  mill  with  corn,  and  meal  is  produced  by  the  same 
revolution. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  WATER  SCREW 

1.  There  is  also  the  method  of  the  screw,  which  raises  a great 
quantity  of  water,  but  does  not  carry  it  as  high  as  does  the  wheel. 
The  method  of  constructing  it  is  as  follows.  A beam  is  selected, 
the  thickness  of  which  in  digits  is  equivalent  to  its  length  in  feet. 


This  is  made  perfectly  round.  The  ends  are  to  be  divided  off  on 
their  circumference  with  the  compass  into  eight  parts,  by  quad- 
rants and  octants,  and  let  the  lines  be  so  placed  that,  if  the  beam 
is  laid  in  a horizontal  position,  the  lines  on  the  two  ends  may 
perfectly  correspond  with  each  other,  and  intervals  of  the  size  of 
one  eighth  part  of  the  circumference  of  the  beam  may  be  laid  off 
on  the  length  of  it.  Then,  placing  the  beam  in  a horizontal  posi- 
tion, let  perfectly  straight  lines  be  drawn  from  one  end  to  the 
other.  So  the  intervals  will  be  equal  in  the  directions  both  of  the 
periphery  and  of  the  length.  Where  the  lines  are  drawn  along 
the  length,  the  cutting  circles  will  make  intersections,  and  defin- 
ite points  at  the  intersections. 


296 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


2.  When  these  lines  have  been  correctly  drawn,  a slender  withe 
of  willow,  or  a straight  piece  cut  from  the  agnus  castus  tree,  is 
taken,  smeared  with  liquid  pitch,  and  fastened  at  the  first  point  of 
intersection.  Then  it  is  carried  across  obliquely  to  the  succeeding 


THE  WATER  SCREW 

(From  the  edition  of  Vitruvius  by  Fra  Giocondo,  Venice,  1511) 


intersections  of  longitudinal  lines  and  circles,  and  as  it  advances, 
passing  each  of  the  points  in  due  order  and  winding  round,  it  is 
fastened  at  each  intersection;  and  so,  withdrawing  from  the  first 
to  the  eighth  point,  it  reaches  and  is  fastened  to  the  line  to  which 
its  first  part  was  fastened.  Thus,  it  makes  as  much  progress  in  its 
longitudinal  advance  to  the  eighth  point  as  in  its  oblique  advance 


Chap.  VII] 


THE  PUMP  OF  CTESIBIUS 


297 


over  eight  points.  In  the  same  manner,  withes  for  the  eight 
divisions  of  the  diameter,  fastened  obliquely  at  the  intersections 
on  the  entire  longitudinal  and  peripheral  surface,  make  spiral 
channels  which  naturally  look  just  like  those  of  a snail  shell. 

3.  Other  withes  are  fastened  on  the  line  of  the  first,  and  on 
these  still  others,  all  smeared  with  liquid  pitch,  and  built  up  until 
the  total  diameter  is  equal  to  one  eighth  of  the  length.  These  are 
covered  and  surrounded  with  boards,  fastened  on  to  protect  the 
spiral.  Then  these  boards  are  soaked  with  pitch,  and  bound  to- 
gether with  strips  of  iron,  so  that  they  may  not  be  separated  by 
the  pressure  of  the  water.  The  ends  of  the  shaft  are  covered  with 
iron.  To  the  right  and  left  of  the  screw  are  beams,  with  cross- 
pieces fastening  them  together  at  both  ends.  In  these  crosspieces 
are  holes  sheathed  with  iron,  and  into  them  pivots  are  introduced, 
and  thus  the  screw  is  turned  by  the  treading  of  men. 

4.  It  is  to  be  set  up  at  an  inclination  corresponding  to  that 
which  is  produced  in  drawing  the  Pythagorean  right-angled 
triangle:  that  is,  let  its  length  be  divided  into  five  parts;  let  three 
of  them  denote  the  height  of  the  head  of  the  screw;  thus  the  dis- 
tance from  the  base  of  the  perpendicular  to  the  nozzle  of  the  screw 
at  the  bottom  will  be  equal  to  four  of  those  parts.  A figure  show- 
ing how  this  ought  to  be,  has  been  drawn  at  the  end  of  the  book, 
right  on  the  back. 

I have  now  described  as  clearly  as  I could,  to  make  them  better 
known,  the  principles  on  which  wooden  engines  for  raising  water 
are  constructed,  and  how  they  get  their  motion  so  that  they  may 
be  of  unlimited  usefulness  through  their  revolutions. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  PUMP  OF  CTESIBIUS 

1.  Next  I must  tell  about  the  machine  of  Ctesibius,  which 
raises  water  to  a height.  It  is  made  of  bronze,  and  has  at  the 
bottom  a pair  of  cylinders  set  a little  way  apart,  and  there  is  a 


298 


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[Book  X 


pipe  connected  with  each,  the  two  running  up,  like  the  prongs  of  a 
fork,  side  by  side  to  a vessel  which  is  between  the  cylinders.  In 
this  vessel  are  valves,  accurately  fitting  over  the  upper  vents  of 
the  pipes,  which  stop  up  the  ventholes,  and  keep  what  has  been 
forced  by  pressure  into  the  vessel  from  going  down  again. 

2.  Over  the  vessel  a cowl  is  adjusted,  like  an  inverted  funnel, 
and  fastened  to  the  vessel  by  means  of  a wedge  thrust  through  a 
staple,  to  prevent  it  from  being  lifted  off  by  the  pressure  of  the 
water  that  is  forced  in.  On  top  of  this  a pipe  is  jointed,  called 
the  trumpet,  which  stands  up  vertically.  Valves  are  inserted  in 
the  cylinders,  beneath  the  lower  vents  of  the  pipes,  and  over  the 
openings  which  are  in  the  bottoms  of  the  cylinders. 

3.  Pistons  smoothly  turned,  rubbed  with  oil,  and  inserted  from 
above  into  the  cylinders,  work  with  their  rods  and  levers  upon  the 
air  and  water  in  the  cylinders,  and,  as  the  valves  stop  up  the 
openings,  force  and  drive  the  water,  by  repeated  pressure  and 
expansion,  through  the  vents  of  the  pipes  into  the  vessel,  from 
which  the  cowl  receives  the  inflated  currents,  and  sends  them  up 
through  the  pipe  at  the  top;  and  so  water  can  be  supplied  for  a 
fountain  from  a reservoir  at  a lower  level. 

4.  This,  however,  is  not  the  only  apparatus  which  Ctesibius  is 
said  to  have  thought  out,  but  many  more  of  various  kinds  are 
shown  by  him  to  produce  effects,  borrowed  from  nature,  by  means 
of  water  pressure  and  compression  of  the  air;  as,  for  example, 
blackbirds  singing  by  means  of  waterworks,  and  “angobatae,” 
and  figures  that  drink  and  move,  and  other  things  that  are  found 
to  be  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  the  ear. 

5.  Of  these  I have  selected  what  I considered  most  useful  and 
necessary,  and  have  thought  it  best  to  speak  in  the  preceding 
book  about  timepieces,  and  in  this  about  the  methods  of  raising 
water.  The  rest,  which  are  not  subservient  to  our  needs,  but  to 
pleasure  and  amusement,  may  be  found  in  the  commentaries  of 
Ctesibius  himself  by  any  who  are  interested  in  such  refinements. 


Chap.  VIII] 


THE  WATER  ORGAN 


299 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  WATER  ORGAN 

1.  With  regard  to  water  organs,  however,  I shall  not  fail  with 
all  possible  brevity  and  precision  to  touch  upon  their  principles, 
and  to  give  a sufficient  description  of  them.  A wooden  base  is 
constructed,  and  on  it  is  set  an  altar-shaped  box  made  of  bronze. 
Uprights,  fastened  together  like  ladders,  are  set  up  on  the  base,  to 
the  right  and  to  the  left  (of  the  altar).  They  hold  the  bronze 
pump-cylinders,  the  moveable  bottoms  of  which,  carefully  turned 
on  a lathe,  have  iron  elbows  fastened  to  their  centres  and  jointed 
to  levers,  and  are  wrapped  in  fleeces  of  wool.  In  the  tops  of  the 
cylinders  are  openings,  each  about  three  digits  in  diameter.  Close 
to  these  openings  are  bronze  dolphins,  mounted  on  joints  and 
holding  chains  in  their  mouths,  from  which  hang  cymbal-shaped 
valves,  let  down  under  the  openings  in  the  cylinders. 

2.  Inside  the  altar,  which  holds  the  water,  is  a regulator  shaped 
like  an  inverted  funnel,  under  which  there  are  cubes,  each  about 
three  digits  high,  keeping  a free  space  below  between  the  lips  of 
the  regulator  and  the  bottom  of  the  altar.  Tightly  fixed  on  the 
neck  of  the  regulator  is  the  windchest,  which  supports  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  contrivance,  called  in  Greek  the  icavcbv  novcrucos. 
Running  longitudinally,  there  are  four  channels  in  it  if  it  is  a tet- 
rachord;  six,  if  it  is  a hexachord;  eight,  if  it  is  an  octachord. 

3.  Each  of  the  channels  has  a cock  in  it,  furnished  with  an  iron 
handle.  These  handles,  when  turned,  open  ventholes  from  the 
windchest  into  the  channels.  From  the  channels  to  the  canon 
there  are  vertical  openings  corresponding  to  ventholes  in  a board 
above,  which  board  is  termed  n Tiva%  in  Greek.  Between  this 
board  and  the  canon  are  inserted  sliders,  pierced  with  holes  to 
correspond,  and  rubbed  with  oil  so  that  they  can  be  easily  moved 
and  slid  back  into  place  again.  They  close  the  above-mentioned 
openings,  and  are  called  the  plinths.  Their  going  and  coming  now 
closes  and  now  opens  the  holes. 


soo 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


4.  These  sliders  have  iron  jacks  fixed  to  them,  and  connected 
with  the  keys,  and  the  keys,  when  touched,  make  the  sliders  move 
regularly.  To  the  upper  surface  of  the  openings  in  the  board, 
where  the  wind  finds  egress  from  the  channels,  rings  are  soldered, 
and  into  them  the  reeds  of  all  the  organ  pipes  are  inserted. 
From  the  cylinders  there  are  connecting  pipes  attached  to  the 
neck  of  the  regulator,  and  directed  towards  the  ventholes  in  the 
windchest.  In  the  pipes  are  valves,  turned  on  a lathe,  and  set 
(where  the  pipes  are  connected  with  the  cylinders).  When  the 
windchest  has  received  the  air,  these  valves  will  stop  up  the  open- 
ings, and  prevent  the  wind  from  coming  back  again. 

5.  So,  when  the  levers  are  raised,  the  elbows  draw  down  the 
bottoms  of  the  cylinders  as  far  as  they  can  go;  and  the  dolphins, 
which  are  mounted  on  joints,  let  the  cymbals  fall  into  the  cylin- 
ders, thus  filling  the  interiors  with  air.  Then  the  elbows,  raising 
the  bottoms  within  the  cylinders  by  repeated  and  violent  blows, 
and  stopping  the  openings  above  by  means  of  the  cymbals,  com- 
press the  air  which  is  enclosed  in  the  cylinders,  and  force  it  into 
the  pipes,  through  which  it  runs  into  the  regulator,  and  through  its 
neck  into  the  windchest.  With  a stronger  motion  of  the  levers, 
the  air  is  still  more  compressed,  streams  through  the  apertures  of 
the  cocks,  and  fills  the  channels  with  wind. 

6.  So,  when  the  keys,  touched  by  the  hand,  drive  the  sliders 
forward  and  draw  them  back  regularly,  alternately  stopping  and 
opening  the  holes,  they  produce  resonant  sounds  in  a great 
variety  of  melodies  conforming  to  the  laws  of  music. 

With  my  best  efforts  I have  striven  to  set  forth  an  obscure  sub- 
ject clearly  in  writing,  but  the  theory  of  it  is  not  easy,  nor  readily 
understood  by  all,  save  only  those  who  have  had  some  practice  in 
things  of  this  kind.  If  anybody  has  failed  to  understand  it,  he 
will  certainly  find,  when  he  comes  to  know  the  thing  itself,  that  it 
is  carefully  and  exquisitely  contrived  in  all  respects. 


Chap.  IX] 


THE  HODOMETER 


301 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  HODOMETER 

1.  The  drift  of  our  treatise  now  turns  to  a useful  invention  of 
the  greatest  ingenuity,  transmitted  by  our  predecessors,  which 
enables  us,  while  sitting  in  a carriage  on  the  road  or  sailing  by  sea, 
to  know  how  many  miles  of  a journey  we  have  accomplished. 
This  will  be  possible  as  follows.  Let  the  wheels  of  the  carriage  be 
each  four  feet  in  diameter,  so  that  if  a wheel  has  a mark  made 
upon  it,  and  begins  to  move  forward  from  that  mark  in  making  its 
revolution  on  the  surface  of  the  road,  it  will  have  covered  the 
definite  distance  of  twelve  and  a half  feet  on  reaching  that  mark 
at  which  it  began  to  revolve. 

2.  Having  provided  such  wheels,  let  a drum  with  a single  tooth 
projecting  beyond  the  face  of  its  circumference  be  firmly  fastened 
to  the  inner  side  of  the  hub  of  the  wheel.  Then,  above  this,  let  a 
case  be  firmly  fastened  to  the  body  of  the  carriage,  containing  a 
revolving  drum  set  on  edge  and  mounted  on  an  axle;  on  the  face 
of  the  drum  there  are  four  hundred  teeth,  placed  at  equal  inter- 
vals, and  engaging  the  tooth  of  the  drum  below.  The  upper 
drum  has,  moreover,  one  tooth  fixed  to  its  side  and  standing  out 
farther  than  the  other  teeth. 

3.  Then,  above,  let  there  be  a horizontal  drum,  similarly 
toothed  and  contained  in  another  case,  with  its  teeth  engag- 
ing the  tooth  fixed  to  the  side  of  the  second  drum,  and  let  as 
many  holes  be  made  in  this  (third)  drum  as  will  correspond  to  the 
number  of  miles  — more  or  less,  it  does  not  matter  — that  a 
carriage  can  go  in  a day’s  journey.  Let  a small  round  stone  be 
placed  in  every  one  of  these  holes,  and  in  the  receptacle  or  case 
containing  that  drum  let  one  hole  be  made,  with  a small  pipe 
attached,  through  which,  when  they  reach  that  point,  the  stones 
placed  in  the  drum  may  fall  one  by  one  into  a bronze  vessel  set 
underneath  in  the  body  of  the  carriage. 

4.  Thus,  as  the  wheel  in  going  forward  carries  with  it  the  lowest 


302 


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[Book  X 


drum,  and  as  the  tooth  of  this  at  every  revolution  strikes  against 
the  teeth  of  the  upper  drum,  and  makes  it  move  along,  the  result 
will  be  that  the  upper  drum  is  carried  round  once  for  every  four 
hundred  revolutions  of  the  lowest,  and  that  the  tooth  fixed  to  its 
side  pushes  forward  one  tooth  of  the  horizontal  drum.  Since, 
therefore,  with  four  hundred  revolutions  of  the  lowest  drum,  the 
upper  will  revolve  once,  the  progress  made  will  be  a distance  of 
five  thousand  feet  or  one  mile.  Hence,  every  stone,  making  a 
ringing  sound  as  it  falls,  will  give  warning  that  we  have  gone  one 
mile.  The  number  of  stones  gathered  from  beneath  and  counted, 
will  show  the  number  of  miles  in  the  day’s  journey. 

5.  On  board  ship,  also,  the  same  principles  may  be  employed 
with  a few  changes.  An  axle  is  passed  through  the  sides  of  the 
ship,  with  its  ends  projecting,  and  wheels  are  mounted  on  them, 
four  feet  in  diameter,  with  projecting  floatboards  fastened 
round  their  faces  and  striking  the  water.  The  middle  of  the 
axle  in  the  middle  of  the  ship  carries  a drum  with  one  tooth  pro- 
jecting beyond  its  circumference.  Here  a case  is  placed  con- 
taining a drum  with  four  hundred  teeth  at  regular  intervals, 
engaging  the  tooth  of  the  drum  that  is  mounted  on  the  axle, 
and  having  also  one  other  tooth  fixed  to  its  side  and  projecting 
beyond  its  circumference. 

6.  Above,  in  another  case  fastened  to  the  former,  is  a horizon- 
tal drum  toothed  in  the  same  way,  and  with  its  teeth  engaging 
the  tooth  fixed  to  the  side  of  the  drum  that  is  set  on  edge,  so 
that  one  of  the  teeth  of  the  horizontal  drum  is  struck  at  each 
revolution  of  that  tooth,  and  the  horizontal  drum  is  thus  made  to 
revolve  in  a circle.  Let  holes  be  made  in  the  horizontal  drum,  in 
which  holes  small  round  stones  are  to  be  placed.  In  the  receptacle 
or  case  containing  that  drum,  let  one  hole  be  opened  with  a small 
pipe  attached,  through  which  a stone,  as  soon  as  the  obstruction 
is  removed,  falls  with  a ringing  sound  into  a bronze  vessel. 

7.  So,  when  a ship  is  making  headway,  whether  under  oars  or 
under  a gale  of  wind,  the  floatboards  on  the  wheels  will  strike 
against  the  water  and  be  driven  violently  back,  thus  turning  the 


Chap.  X] 


CATAPULTS  OR  SCORPIONES 


303 


wheels;  and  they,  revolving,  will  move  the  axle,  and  the  axle 
the  drum,  the  tooth  of  which,  as  it  goes  round,  strikes  one  of  the 
teeth  of  the  second  drum  at  each  revolution,  and  makes  it  turn 
a little.  So,  when  the  floatboards  have  caused  the  wheels  to  re- 
volve four  hundred  times,  this  drum,  having  turned  round  once, 
will  strike  a tooth  of  the  horizontal  drum  with  the  tooth  that  is 
fixed  to  its  side.  Hence,  every  time  the  turning  of  the  horizontal 
drum  brings  a stone  to  a hole,  it  will  let  the  stone  out  through  the 
pipe.  Thus  by  the  sound  and  the  number,  the  length  of  the  voy- 
age will  be  shown  in  miles. 

I have  described  how  to  make  things  that  may  be  provided  for 
use  and  amusement  in  times  that  are  peaceful  and  without  fear. 


CHAPTER  X 

CATAPULTS  OR  SCORPIONES 

1.  I shall  next  explain  the  symmetrical  principles  on  which 
scorpiones  and  ballistae  may  be  constructed,  inventions  devised 
for  defence  against  danger,  and  in  the  interest  of  self-preserva- 
tion. 

The  proportions  of  these  engines  are  all  computed  from  the 
given  length  of  the  arrow  which  the  engine  is  intended  to  throw, 
and  the  size  of  the  holes  in  the  capitals,  through  which  the  twisted 
sinews  that  hold  the  arms  are  stretched,  is  one  ninth  of  that 
length. 

2.  The  height  and  breadth  of  the  capital  itself  must  then  con- 
form to  the  size  of  the  holes.  The  boards  at  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  capital,  which  are  called  “ peritreti,”  should  be  in  thickness 
equal  to  one  hole,  and  in  breadth  to  one  and  three  quarters,  except 
at  their  extremities,  where  they  equal  one  hole  and  a half.  The 
sideposts  on  the  right  and  left  should  be  four  holes  high,  excluding 
the  tenons,  and  five  twelfths  of  a hole  thick;  the  tenons,  half  a 
hole.  The  distance  from  a sidepost  to  the  hole  is  one  quarter  of  a 
hole,  and  it  is  also  one  quarter  of  a hole  from  the  hole  to  the  post 


VITRUVIUS 


304 


[Book  X 


in  the  middle.  The  breadth  of  the  post  in  the  middle  is  equal  to 
one  hole  and  one  eighth,  the  thickness,  to  one  hole. 

3.  The  opening  in  the  middle  post,  where  the  arrow  is  laid,  is 
equal  to  one  fourth  of  the  hole.  The  four  surrounding  corners 
should  have  iron  plates  nailed  to  their  sides  and  faces,  or  should 
be  studded  with  bronze  pins  and  nails.  The  pipe,  called  avpi in 
Greek,  has  a length  of  nineteen  holes.  The  strips,  which  some 
term  cheeks,  nailed  at  the  right  and  left  of  the  pipe,  have  a 
length  of  nineteen  holes  and  a height  and  thickness  of  one  hole. 
Two  other  strips,  enclosing  the  windlass,  are  nailed  on  to  these, 
three  holes  long  and  half  a hole  in  breadth.  The  cheek  nailed  on 
to  them,  named  the  “ bench,”  or  by  some  the  “box,”  and  made 
fast  by  means  of  dove-tailed  tenons,  is  one  hole  thick  and  seven 
twelfths  of  a hole  in  height.  The  length  of  the  windlass  is  equal 
to  . . } holes,  the  thickness  of  the  windlass  to  three  quarters 
of  a hole. 

4.  The  latch  is  seven  twelfths  of  a hole  in  length  and  one 
quarter  in  thickness.  So  also  its  socket-piece.  The  trigger  or 
handle  is  three  holes  in  length  and  three  quarters  of  a hole  in 
breadth  and  thickness.  The  trough  in  the  pipe  is  sixteen  holes 
in  length,  one  quarter  of  a hole  in  thickness,  and  three  quar- 
ters in  height.  The  base  of  the  standard  on  the  ground  is  equal 
to  eight  holes;  the  breadth  of  the  standard  where  it  is  fastened 
into  the  plinth  is  three  quarters  of  a hole,  its  thickness  two 
thirds  of  a hole;  the  height  of  the  standard  up  to  the  tenon  is 
twelve  holes,  its  breadth  three  quarters  of  a hole,  and  its  thick- 
ness two  thirds.  It  has  three  struts,  each  nine  holes  in  length, 
half  a hole  in  breadth,  and  five  twelfths  in  thickness.  The 
tenon  is  one  hole  in  length,  and  the  head  of  the  standard  one 
hole  and  a half  in  length. 

5.  The  antefix  has  the  breadth  of  a hole  and  one  eighth,  and 
the  thickness  of  one  hole.  The  smaller  support,  which  is  behind, 
termed  in  Greek  avTL/3aa^9  is  eight  holes  long,  three  quarters  of  a 
hole  broad,  and  two  thirds  thick.  Its  prop  is  twelve  holes  long, 

1 The  dots  here  and  in  what  follows,  indicate  lacunae  in  the  manuscripts. 


Chap.  XI] 


BALLISTAE 


305 


and  has  the  same  breadth  and  thickness  as  the  smaller  support 
just  mentioned.  Above  the  smaller  support  is  its  socket-piece, 
or  what  is  called  the  cushion,  two  and  a half  holes  long,  one  and  a 
half  high,  and  three  quarters  of  a hole  broad.  The  windlass  cup  is 
two  and  seven  twelfths  holes  long,  two  thirds  of  a hole  thick,  and 
three  quarters  broad.  The  crosspieces  with  their  tenons  have  the 
length  of  . . . holes,  the  breadth  of  three  quarters,  and  the  thick- 
ness of  two  thirds  of  a hole.  The  length  of  an  arm  is  seven  holes, 
its  thickness  at  its  base  two  thirds  of  a hole,  and  at  its  end  one 
half  a hole;  its  curvature  is  equal  to  two  thirds  of  a hole. 

6.  These  engines  are  constructed  according  to  these  proportions 
or  with  additions  or  diminutions.  For,  if  the  height  of  the  capitals 
is  greater  than  their  width  — when  they  are  called  “high-ten- 
sioned/’ — something  should  be  taken  from  the  arms,  so  that  the 
more  the  tension  is  weakened  by  height  of  the  capitals,  the  more 
the  strength  of  the  blow  is  increased  by  shortness  of  the  arms. 
But  if  the  capital  is  less  high,  — when  the  term  “low-tensioned”  is 
used,  — the  arms,  on  account  of  their  strength,  should  be  made 
a little  longer,  so  that  they  may  be  drawn  easily.  Just  as  it  takes 
four  men  to  raise  a load  with  a lever  five  feet  long,  and  only  two 
men  to  lift  the  same  load  with  a ten-foot  lever,  so  the  longer  the 
arms,  the  easier  they  are  to  draw,  and  the  shorter,  the  harder. 

I have  now  spoken  of  the  principles  applicable  to  the  parts  and 
proportions  of  catapults. 


CHAPTER  XI 

BALLISTAE 

1.  Ballistae  are  constructed  on  varying  principles  to  pro- 
duce an  identical  result.  Some  are  worked  by  handspikes  and 
windlasses,  some  by  blocks  and  pulleys,  others  by  capstans, 
others  again  by  means  of  drums.  No  ballista,  however,  is  made 
without  regard  to  the  given  amount  of  weight  of  the  stone  which 
the  engine  is  intended  to  throw.  Hence  their  principle  is  not  easy 


306 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


for  everybody,  but  only  for  those  who  have  knowledge  of  the  geo- 
metrical principles  employed  in  calculation  and  in  multiplication. 

2.  For  the  holes  made  in  the  capitals  through  the  openings  of 
which  are  stretched  the  strings  made  of  twisted  hair,  generally 
women’s,  or  of  sinew,  are  proportionate  to  the  amount  of  weight 
in  the  stone  which  the  ballista  is  intended  to  throw,  and  to  the 
principle  of  mass,  as  in  catapults  the  principle  is  that  of  the  length 
of  the  arrow.  Therefore,  in  order  that  those  who  do  not  under- 
stand geometry  may  be  prepared  beforehand,  so  as  not  to  be 
delayed  by  having  to  think  the  matter  out  at  a moment  of  peril 
in  war,  I will  set  forth  what  I myself  know  by  experience  can  be 
depended  upon,  and  what  I have  in  part  gathered  from  the  rules 
of  my  teachers,  and  wherever  Greek  weights  bear  a relation  to 
the  measures,  I shall  reduce  and  explain  them  so  that  they  will 
express  the  same  corresponding  relation  in  our  weights. 

3.  A ballista  intended  to  throw  a two-pound  stone  will  have  a 
hole  of  five  digits  in  its  capital;  four  pounds,  six  digits,  and  six 
pounds,  seven  digits;  ten  pounds,  eight  digits;  twenty  pounds, 
ten  digits;  forty  pounds,  twelve  and  a half  digits;  sixty  pounds, 
thirteen  and  a half  digits;  eighty  pounds,  fifteen  and  three 
quarters  digits;  one  hundred  pounds,  one  foot  and  one  and  a half 
digits;  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds,  one  foot  and  two  digits; 
one  hundred  and  forty  pounds,  one  foot  and  three  digits;  one 
hundred  and  sixty  pounds,  one  foot  and  a quarter;  one  hundred 
and  eighty  pounds,  one  foot  and  five  digits;  two  hundred  pounds, 
one  foot  and  six  digits;  two  hundred  and  forty  pounds,  one  foot 
and  seven  digits;  two  hundred  and  eighty  pounds,  one  foot  and 
a half;  three  hundred  and  twenty  pounds,  one  foot  and  nine 
digits;  three  hundred  and  sixty  pounds,  one  foot  and  ten  digits. 

4.  Having  determined  the  size  of  the  hole,  design  the  “scu- 
tula,”  termed  in  Greek  irepLTpr)To<;9  . . . holes  in  length  and 
two  and  one  sixth  in  breadth.  Bisect  it  by  a line  drawn 
diagonally  from  the  angles,  and  after  this  bisecting  bring 
together  the  outlines  of  the  figure  so  that  it  may  present  a rhom- 
boidal  design,  reducing  it  by  one  sixth  of  its  length  and  one 


Chap.  XI] 


BALLISTAE 


307 


fourth  of  its  breadth  at  the  (obtuse)  angles.  In  the  part  com- 
posed by  the  curvatures  into  which  the  points  of  the  angles  run 
out,  let  the  holes  be  situated,  and  let  the  breadth  be  reduced 
by  one  sixth;  moreover,  let  the  hole  be  longer  than  it  is  broad 
by  the  thickness  of  the  bolt.  After  designing  the  scutula,  let  its 
outline  be  worked  down  to  give  it  a gentle  curvature. 

5.  It  should  be  given  the  thickness  of  seven  twelfths  of  a hole. 
The  boxes  are  two  holes  (in  height),  one  and  three  quarters  in 
breadth,  two  thirds  of  a hole  in  thickness  except  the  part  that  is 
inserted  in  the  hole,  and  at  the  top  one  third  of  a hole  in  breadth. 
The  sideposts  are  five  holes  and  two  thirds  in  length,  their  curva- 
ture half  a hole,  and  their  thickness  thirty-seven  forty-eighths  of 
a hole.  In  the  middle  their  breadth  is  increased  as  much  as  it  was 
near  the  hole  in  the  design,  by  the  breadth  and  thickness  of  . . . 
hole;  the  height  by  one  fourth  of  a hole. 

6.  The  (inner)  strip  on  the  “ table”  has  a length  of  eight  holes, 
a breadth  and  thickness  of  half  a hole.  Its  tenons  are  one  hole 
and  one  sixth  long,  and  one  quarter  of  a hole  in  thickness.  The 
curvature  of  this  strip  is  three  quarters  of  a hole.  The  outer  strip 
has  the  same  breadth  and  thickness  (as  the  inner),  but  the  length 
is  given  by  the  obtuse  angle  of  the  design  and  the  breadth  of  the 
sidepost  at  its  curvature.  The  upper  strips  are  to  be  equal  to 
the  lower;  the  cross-pieces  of  the  “table,”  one  half  of  a hole. 

7.  The  shafts  of  the  “ ladder”  are  thirteen  holes  in  length,  one 

hole  in  thickness;  the  space  between  them  is  one  hole  and  a quar- 
ter in  breadth,  and  one  and  one  eighth  in  depth.  Let  the  entire 
length  of  the  ladder  on  its  upper  surface  — which  is  the  one  adjoin- 
ing the  arms  and  fastened  to  the  table — be  divided  into  five  parts. 
Of  these  let  two  parts  be  given  to  the  member  which  the  Greeks 
call  the  its  breadth  being  one  and  one  sixth,  its  thickness 

one  quarter,  and  its  length  eleven  holes  and  one  half;  the  claw 
projects  half  a hole  and  the  “winging”  three  sixteenths  of  a 
hole.  What  is  at  the  axis  which  is  termed  the  . . . face  . . . the 
crosspieces  of  three  holes? 

8.  The  breadth  of  the  inner  slips  is  one  quarter  of  a hole;  their 


308 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


thickness  one  sixth.  The  coverjoint  or  lid  of  the  chelonium 
is  dovetailed  into  the  shafts  of  the  ladder,  and  is  three  sixteenths 
of  a hole  in  breadth  and  one  twelfth  in  thickness.  The  thickness 
of  the  square  piece  on  the  ladder  is  three  sixteenths  of  a hole,  . . . 
the  diameter  of  the  round  axle  will  be  equal  to  that  of  the  claw, 
but  at  the  pivots  seven  sixteenths  of  a hole. 

9.  The  stays  are  . . . holes  in  length,  one  quarter  of  a hole  in 
breadth  at  the  bottom,  and  one  sixth  in  thickness  at  the  top.  The 
base,  termed  eV^apa,  has  the  length  of  . . . holes,  and  the  anti- 
base of  four  holes;  each  is  one  hole  in  thickness  and  breadth.  A 
supporter  is  jointed  on,  halfway  up,  one  and  one  half  holes  in 
breadth  and  thickness.  Its  height  bears  no  relation  to  the  hole, 
but  will  be  such  as  to  be  serviceable.  The  length  of  an  arm  is  six 
holes,  its  thickness  at  the  base  two  thirds  of  a hole,  and  at  the 
end  one  half  a hole. 

I have  now  given  those  symmetrical  proportions  of  ballistae 
and  catapults  which  I thought  most  useful.  But  I shall  not 
omit,  so  far  as  I can  express  it  in  writing,  the  method  of  stretch- 
ing and  tuning  their  strings  of  twisted  sinew  or  hair. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  STRINGING  AND  TUNING  OF  CATAPULTS 

1.  Beams  of  very  generous  length  are  selected,  and  upon  them 
are  nailed  socket-pieces  in  which  windlasses  are  inserted.  Mid- 
way along  their  length  the  beams  are  incised  and  cut  away  to 
form  framings,  and  in  these  cuttings  the  capitals  of  the  catapults 
are  inserted,  and  prevented  by  wedges  from  moving  when  the 
stretching  is  going  on.  Then  the  bronze  boxes  are  inserted  into 
the  capitals,  and  the  little  iron  bolts,  which  the  Greeks  call 
im£vyft>es9  are  put  in  their  places  in  the  boxes. 

2.  Next,  the  loops  of  the  strings  are  put  through  the  holes  in 
the  capitals,  and  passed  through  to  the  other  side;  next,  they  are 
put  upon  the  windlasses,  and  wound  round  them  in  order  that 


Chap.  XIII] 


SIEGE  MACHINES 


309 


the  strings,  stretched  out  taut  on  them  by  means  of  the  hand- 
spikes, on  being  struck  by  the  hand,  may  respond  with  the  same 
sound  on  both  sides.  Then  they  are  wedged  tightly  into  the 
holes  so  that  they  cannot  slacken.  So,  in  the  same  manner,  they 
are  passed  through  to  the  other  side,  and  stretched  taut  on  the 
windlasses  by  means  of  the  handspikes  until  they  give  the 
same  sound.  Thus  with  tight  wedging,  catapults  are  tuned 
to  the  proper  pitch  by  musical  sense  of  hearing. 

On  these  things  I have  said  what  I could.  There  is  left  for  me, 
in  the  matter  of  sieges,  to  explain  how  generals  can  win  victories 
and  cities  be  defended,  by  means  of  machinery. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SIEGE  MACHINES 

1.  It  is  related  that  the  battering  ram  for  sieges  was  originally 
invented  as  follows.  The  Carthaginians  pitched  their  camp  for 
the  siege  of  Cadiz.  They  captured  an  outwork  and  attempted  to 
destroy  it.  But  having  no  iron  implements  for  its  destruction, 
they  took  a beam,  and,  raising  it  with  their  hands,  and  driving 
the  end  of  it  repeatedly  against  the  top  of  the  wall,  they  threw 
down  the  top  courses  of  stones,  and  thus,  step  by  step  in  regular 
order,  they  demolished  the  entire  redoubt. 

2.  Afterwards  a carpenter  from  Tyre,  Bright  by  name  and  by 
nature,  was  led  by  this  invention  into  setting  up  a mast  from 
which  he  hung  another  crosswise  like  a steelyard,  and  so,  by 
swinging  it  vigorously  to  and  fro,  he  threw  down  the  wall  of 
Cadiz.  Geras  of  Chalcedon  was  the  first  to  make  a wooden  plat- 
form with  wheels  under  it,  upon  which  he  constructed  a frame- 
work of  uprights  and  crosspieces,  and  within  it  he  hung  the  ram, 
and  covered  it  with  oxhide  for  the  better  protection  of  the  men 
who  were  stationed  in  the  machine  to  batter  the  wall.  As  the 
machine  made  but  slow  progress,  he  first  gave  it  the  name  of  the 
tortoise  of  the  ram. 


310 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


3.  These  were  the  first  steps  then  taken  towards  that  kind  of 
machinery,  but  afterwards,  when  Philip,  the  son  of  Amyntas, 
was  besieging  Byzantium,  it  was  developed  in  many  varieties 
and  made  handier  by  Polyidus  the  Thessalian.  His  pupils  were 
Diades  and  Charias,  who  served  with  Alexander.  Diades  shows 
in  his  writings  that  he  invented  moveable  towers,  which  he  used 
also  to  take  apart  and  carry  round  with  the  army,  and  likewise 
the  borer,  and  the  scaling  machine,  by  means  of  which  one  can 
cross  over  to  the  wall  on  a level  with  the  top  of  it,  as  well  as  the 
destroyer  called  the  raven,  or  by  others  the  crane. 

4.  He  also  employed  the  ram  mounted  on  wheels,  an  account 
of  which  he  left  in  his  writings.  As  for  the  tower,  he  says  that  the 
smallest  should  be  not  less  than  sixty  cubits  in  height  and  seven- 
teen in  breadth,  but  diminishing  to  one  fifth  less  at  the  top;  the 
uprights  for  the  tower  being  nine  inches  at  the  bottom  and  half  a 
foot  at  the  top.  Such  a tower,  he  says,  ought  to  be  ten  stories 
high,  with  windows  in  it  on  all  sides. 

5.  His  larger  tower,  he  adds,  was  one  hundred  and  twenty  cu- 
bits high  and  twenty-three  and  one  half  cubits  broad,  diminish- 
ing like  the  other  to  one  fifth  less;  the  uprights,  one  foot  at  the 
bottom  and  six  digits  at  the  top.  He  made  this  large  tower 
twenty  stories  high,  each  story  having  a gallery  round  it,  three 
cubits  wide.  He  covered  the  towers  with  rawhide  to  protect 
them  from  any  kind  of  missile. 

6.  The  tortoise  of  the  battering  ram  was  constructed  in  the 
same  way.  It  had,  however,  a base  of  thirty  cubits  square,  and  a 
height,  excluding  the  pediment,  of  thirteen  cubits;  the  height  of 
the  pediment  from  its  bed  to  its  top  was  seven  cubits.  Issuing  up 
and  above  the  middle  of  the  roof  for  not  less  than  two  cubits  was 
a gable,  and  on  this  was  reared  a small  tower  four  stories  high,  in 
which,  on  the  top  floor,  scorpiones  and  catapults  were  set  up, 
and  on  the  lower  floors  a great  quantity  of  water  was  stored,  to 
put  out  any  fire  that  might  be  thrown  on  the  tortoise.  Inside  of 
this  was  set  the  machinery  of  the  ram,  termed  in  Greek  fcpio&ox y, 
in  which  was  placed  a roller,  turned  on  a lathe,  and  the  ram,  be- 


Chap.  XIV] 


THE  TORTOISE 


311 


ing  set  on  top  of  this,  produced  its  great  effects  when  swung  to 
and  fro  by  means  of  ropes.  It  was  protected,  like  the  tower, 
with  rawhide. 

7.  He  explained  the  principles  of  the  borer  as  follows:  that 
the  machine  itself  resembled  the  tortoise,  but  that  in  the  middle 
it  had  a pipe  lying  between  upright  walls,  like  the  pipe  usually 
found  in  catapults  and  ballistae,  fifty  cubits  in  length  and  one 
cubit  in  height,  in  which  a windlass  was  set  transversely.  On 
the  right  and  left,  at  the  end  of  the  pipe,  were  two  blocks,  by 
means  of  which  the  iron-pointed  beam,  which  lay  in  the  pipe,  was 
moved.  There  were  numerous  rollers  enclosed  in  the  pipe  itself 
under  the  beam,  which  made  its  movements  quicker  and  stronger. 
Numerous  arches  were  erected  along  the  pipe  above  the  beam 
which  was  in  it,  to  hold  up  the  rawhide  in  which  this  machine 
was  enveloped. 

8.  He  thought  it  needless  to  write  about  the  raven,  because  he 
saw  that  the  machine  was  of  no  value.  With  regard  to  the  scal- 
ing machine,  termed  in  Greek  emfidOpa,  and  the  naval  con- 
trivances which,  as  he  wrote,  could  be  used  in  boarding  ships,  I 
have  observed  that  he  merely  promised  with  some  earnestness 
to  explain  their  principles,  but  that  he  has  not  done  so. 

I have  set  forth  what  was  written  by  Diades  on  machines  and 
their  construction.  I shall  now  set  forth  the  methods  which  I 
have  learned  from  my  teachers,  and  which  I myself  believe  to  be 
useful. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  TORTOISE 

1.  A tortoise  intended  for  the  filling  of  ditches,  and  thereby 
to  make  it  possible  to  reach  the  wall,  is  to  be  made  as  follows. 
Let  a base,  termed  in  Greek  eV^apa,  be  constructed,  with  each  of 
its  sides  twenty-one  feet  long,  and  with  four  crosspieces.  Let 
these  be  held  together  by  two  others,  two  thirds  of  a foot  thick 
and  half  a foot  broad;  let  the  crosspieces  be  about  three  feet  and 


312 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


a half  apart,  and  beneath  and  in  the  spaces  between  them  set 
the  trees,  termed  in  Greek  a/xafoVoSe?,  in  which  the  axles  of  the 
wheels  turn  in  iron  hoops.  Let  the  trees  be  provided  with  pivots, 
and  also  with  holes  through  which  levers  are  passed  to  make  them 
turn,  so  that  the  tortoise  can  move  forward  or  back  or  towards 
its  right  or  left  side,  or  if  necessary  obliquely,  all  by  the  turning 
of  the  trees. 

2.  Let  two  beams  be  laid  on  the  base,  projecting  for  six  feet 
on  each  side,  round  the  projections  of  which  let  two  other  beams 
be  nailed,  projecting  seven  feet  beyond  the  former,  and  of  the 
thickness  and  breadth  prescribed  in  the  case  of  the  base.  On  this 
framework  set  up  posts  mortised  into  it,  nine  feet  high  exclusive 
of  their  tenons,  one  foot  and  a quarter  square,  and  one  foot  and 
a half  apart.  Let  the  posts  be  tied  together  at  the  top  by  mortised 
beams.  Over  the  beams  let  the  rafters  be  set,  tied  one  into  another 
by  means  of  tenons,  and  carried  up  twelve  feet  high.  Over  the 
rafters  set  the  square  beam  by  which  the  rafters  are  bound 
together. 

3.  Let  the  rafters  themselves  be  held  together  by  bridgings, 
and  covered  with  boards,  preferably  of  holm  oak,  or,  this  failing, 
of  any  other  material  which  has  the  greatest  strength,  except 
pine  or  alder.  For  these  woods  are  weak  and  easily  catch  fire. 
Over  the  boardings  let  there  be  placed  wattles  very  closely 
woven  of  thin  twigs  as  fresh  as  possible.  Let  the  entire  machine 
be  covered  with  rawhide  sewed  together  double  and  stuffed  with 
seaweed  or  straw  soaked  in  vinegar.  In  this  way  the  blows  of 
ballistae  and  the  force  of  fires  will  be  repelled  by  them. 


CHAPTER  XV 
hegetor’s  tortoise 

1.  There  is  also  another  kind  of  tortoise,  which  has  all  the  other 
details  as  described  above  except  the  rafters,  but  it  has  round  it 
a parapet  and  battlements  of  boards,  and  eaves  sloping  down- 


From  a MS.  of  tlie  sixteenth  century  (Wescher’s  Poliorcetique  des  Grecs). 
From  a model  made  by  A.  A.  Howard. 


Chap.  XV] 


HEGETOR’S  TORTOISE 


313 


wards,  and  is  covered  with  boards  and  hides  firmly  fastened  in 
place.  Above  this  let  clay  kneaded  with  hair  be  spread  to  such 
a thickness  that  fire  cannot  injure  the  machine.  These  machines 
can,  if  need  be,  have  eight  wheels,  should  it  be  necessary  to 
modify  them  with  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  ground.  Tor- 
toises, however,  which  are  intended  for  excavating,  termed  in 
Greek  opvKTihes,  have  all  the  other  details  as  described  above,  but 
their  fronts  are  constructed  like  the  angles  of  triangles,  in  order 
that  when  missiles  are  shot  against  them  from  a wall,  they  may 
receive  the  blows  not  squarely  in  front,  but  glancing  from  the 
sides,  and  those  excavating  within  may  be  protected  without 
danger. 

2.  It  does  not  seem  to  me  out  of  place  to  set  forth  the  princi- 
ples on  which  Hegetor  of  Byzantium  constructed  a tortoise.  The 
length  of  its  base  was  sixty-three  feet,  the  breadth  forty-two. 
The  corner  posts,  four  in  number,  which  were  set  upon  this  frame- 
work, were  made  of  two  timbers  each,  and  were  thirty-six  feet 
high,  a foot  and  a quarter  thick,  and  a foot  and  a half  broad.  The 
base  had  eight  wheels  by  means  of  which  it  was  moved  about. 
The  height  of  these  wheels  was  six  and  three  quarters  feet,  their 
thickness  three  feet.  Thus  constructed  of  three  pieces  of  wood, 
united  by  alternate  opposite  dovetails  and  bound  together  by 
cold-drawn  iron  plates,  they  revolved  in  the  trees  or  amaxo- 
podes. 

3.  Likewise,  on  the  plane  of  the  crossbeams  above  the  base, 
were  erected  posts  eighteen  feet  high,  three  quarters  of  a foot 
broad,  two  thirds  of  a foot  thick,  and  a foot  and  three  quarters 
apart;  above  these,  framed  beams,  a foot  broad  and  three  quar- 
ters of  a foot  thick,  held  the  whole  structure  together;  above  this 
the  rafters  were  raised,  with  an  elevation  of  twelve  feet;  a beam 
set  above  the  rafters  united  their  joinings.  They  also  had  bridg- 
ings fastened  transversely,  and  a flooring  laid  on  them  protected 
the  parts  beneath. 

4.  It  had,  moreover,  a middle  flooring  on  girts,  where  scorpiones 
and  catapults  were  placed.  There  were  set  up,  also,  two  framed 


314 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


uprights  forty-five  feet  long,  a foot  and  a half  in  thickness,  and 
three  quarters  of  a foot  in  breadth,  joined  at  the  tops  by  a mor- 
tised crossbeam  and  by  another,  halfway  up,  mortised  into  the 
two  shafts  and  tied  in  place  by  iron  plates.  Above  this  was  set, 
between  the  shafts  and  the  crossbeams,  a block  pierced  on  either 
side  by  sockets,  and  firmly  fastened  in  place  with  clamps.  In 
this  block  were  two  axles,  turned  on  a lathe,  and  ropes  fastened 
from  them  held  the  ram. 

5.  Over  the  head  of  these  (ropes)  which  held  the  ram,  was 
placed  a parapet  fitted  out  like  a small  tower,  so  that,  without 
danger,  two  soldiers,  standing  in  safety,  could  look  out  and  report 
what  the  enemy  were  attempting.  The  entire  ram  had  a length 
of  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet,  a breadth  at  the  base  of  a foot 
and  a quarter,  and  a thickness  of  a foot,  tapering  at  the  head  to 
a breadth  of  a foot  and  a thickness  of  three  quarters  of  a foot. 

6.  This  ram,  moreover,  had  a beak  of  hard  iron  such  as  ships  of 
war  usually  have,  and  from  the  beak  iron  plates,  four  in  number, 
about  fifteen  feet  long,  were  fastened  to  the  wood.  From  the  head 
to  the  very  heel  of  the  beam  were  stretched  cables,  three  in  num- 
ber and  eight  digits  thick,  fastened  just  as  in  a ship  from  stem 
to  stern  continuously,  and  these  cables  were  bound  with  cross 
girdles  a foot  and  a quarter  apart.  Over  these  the  whole  ram  was 
wrapped  with  rawhide.  The  ends  of  the  ropes  from  which  the 
ram  hung  were  made  of  fourfold  chains  of  iron,  and  these  chains 
were  themselves  wrapped  in  rawhide. 

7.  Likewise,  the  projecting  end  of  the  ram  had  a box  framed 
and  constructed  of  boards,  in  which  was  stretched  a net  made  of 
rather  large  ropes,  over  the  rough  surfaces  of  which  one  easily 
reached  the  wall  without  the  feet  slipping.  And  this  machine 
moved  in  six  directions,  forward  (and  backward),  also  to  the 
right  or  left,  and  likewise  it  was  elevated  by  extending  it  up- 
wards and  depressed  by  inclining  it  downwards.  The  machine 
could  be  elevated  to  a height  sufficient  to  throw  down  a wall  of 
about  one  hundred  feet,  and  likewise  in  its  thrust  it  covered  a 
space  from  right  to  left  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  feet.  One 


Chap.  XVI] 


MEASURES  OF  DEFENCE 


315 


hundred  men  controlled  it,  though  it  had  a weight  of  four  thou- 
sand  talents,  which  is  four  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  pounds. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

MEASURES  OF  DEFENCE 

1.  With  regard  to  scorpiones,  catapults,  and  ballistae,  likewise 
with  regard  to  tortoises  and  towers,  I have  set  forth,  as  seemed  to 
me  especially  appropriate,  both  by  whom  they  were  invented  and 
in  what  manner  they  should  be  constructed.  But  I have  not  con- 
sidered it  as  necessary  to  describe  ladders,  cranes,  and  other 
things,  the  principles  of  which  are  simpler,  for  the  soldiers  usually 
construct  these  by  themselves,  nor  can  these  very  machines  be 
useful  in  all  places  nor  in  the  same  way,  since  fortifications  differ 
from  each  other,  and  so  also  the  bravery  of  nations.  For  siege 
works  against  bold  and  venturesome  men  should  be  constructed 
on  one  plan,  on  another  against  cautious  men,  and  on  still  another 
against  the  cowardly. 

2.  And  so,  if  any  one  pays  attention  to  these  directions,  and  by 
selection  adapts  their  various  principles  to  a single  structure,  he 
will  not  be  in  need  of  further  aids,  but  will  be  able,  without  hesi- 
tation, to  design  such  machines  as  the  circumstances  or  the  situ- 
ations demand.  With  regard  to  works  of  defence,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  write,  since  the  enemy  do  not  construct  their  defences  in 
conformity  with  our  books,  but  their  contrivances  are  frequently 
foiled,  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  by  some  shrewd,  hastily  con- 
ceived plan,  without  the  aid  of  machines,  as  is  said  to  have  been 
the  experience  of  the  Rhodians. 

3.  For  Diognetus  was  a Rhodian  architect,  to  whom,  as  an 
honour,  was  granted  out  of  the  public  treasury  a fixed  annual  pay- 
ment commensurate  with  the  dignity  of  his  art.  At  this  time  an 
architect  from  Aradus,  Callias  by  name,  coming  to  Rhodes,  gave 
a public  lecture,  and  showed  a model  of  a wall,  over  which  he  set 
a machine  on  a revolving  crane  with  which  he  seized  an  helepolis 


316 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


as  it  approached  the  fortifications,  and  brought  it  inside  the  wall. 
The  Rhodians,  when  they  had  seen  this  model,  filled  with  admira- 
tion, took  from  Diognetus  the  yearly  grant  and  transferred  this 
honour  to  Callias. 

4.  Meanwhile,  king  Demetrius,  who  because  of  his  stubborn 
courage  was  called  Poliorcetes,  making  war  on  Rhodes,  brought 
with  him  a famous  Athenian  architect  named  Epimachus.  He 
constructed  at  enormous  expense,  with  the  utmost  care  and  exer- 
tion, an  helepolis  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  feet  high  and  sixty 
feet  broad.  He  strengthened  it  with  hair  and  rawhide  so  that  it 
could  withstand  the  blow  of  a stone  weighing  three  hundred  and 
sixty  pounds  shot  from  a ballista;  the  machine  itself  weighed 
three  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  pounds.  When  Callias  was 
asked  by  the  Rhodians  to  construct  a machine  to  resist  this  hele- 
polis, and  to  bring  it  within  the  wall  as  he  had  promised,  he  said 
that  it  was  impossible. 

5.  For  not  all  things  are  practicable  on  identical  principles,  but 
there  are  some  things  which,  when  enlarged  in  imitation  of  small 
models,  are  effective,  others  cannot  have  models,  but  are  con- 
structed independently  of  them,  while  there  are  some  which 
appear  feasible  in  models,  but  when  they  have  begun  to  increase 
in  size  are  impracticable,  as  we  can  observe  in  the  following 
instance.  A half  inch,  inch,  or  inch  and  a half  hole  is  bored  with 
an  auger,  but  if  we  should  wish,  in  the  same  manner,  to  bore  a 
hole  a quarter  of  a foot  in  breadth,  it  is  impracticable,  while  one 
of  half  a foot  or  more  seems  not  even  conceivable. 

6.  So  too,  in  some  models  it  is  seen  how  they  appear  practicable 
on  the  smallest  scale  and  likewise  on  a larger.  And  so  the  Rhodi- 
ans, in  the  same  manner,  deceived  by  the  same  reasoning,  inflicted 
injury  and  insult  on  Diognetus.  Therefore,  when  they  saw  the 
enemy  stubbornly  hostile,  slavery  threatening  them  because  of 
the  machine  which  had  been  built  to  take  the  city,  and  that  they 
must  look  forward  to  the  destruction  of  their  state,  they  fell  at 
the  feet  of  Diognetus,  begging  him  to  come  to  the  aid  of  the 
fatherland.  He  at  first  refused. 


Chap.  XVI] 


MEASURES  OF  DEFENCE 


317 


7.  But  after  free-born  maidens  and  young  men  came  with  the 
priests  to  implore  him,  he  promised  to  do  it  on  condition  that  if 
he  took  the  machine  it  should  be  his  property.  When  these 
terms  had  been  agreed  upon,  he  pierced  the  wall  in  the  place 
where  the  machine  was  going  to  approach  it,  and  ordered  all  to 
bring  forth  from  both  public  and  private  sources  all  the  water, 
excrement,  and  filth,  and  to  pour  it  in  front  of  the  wall  through 
pipes  projecting  through  this  opening.  After  a great  amount  of 
water,  filth,  and  excrement  had  been  poured  out  during  the 
night,  on  the  next  day  the  helepolis  moving  up,  before  it  could 
reach  the  wall,  came  to  a stop  in  the  swamp  made  by  the  moist- 
ure, and  could  not  be  moved  forwards,  nor  later  even  backwards. 
And  so  Demetrius,  when  he  saw  that  he  had  been  baffled  by  the 
wisdom  of  Diognetus,  withdrew  with  his  fleet. 

8.  Then  the  Rhodians,  freed  from  the  war  by  the  cunning  of 
Diognetus,  thanked  him  publicly,  and  decorated  him  with  all 
honours  and  distinctions.  Diognetus  brought  that  helepolis  into 
the  city,  set  it  up  in  a public  place,  and  put  on  it  an  inscription : 
“ Diognetus  out  of  the  spoils  of  the  enemy  dedicated  this  gift  to 
the  people.”  Therefore,  in  works  of  defence,  not  merely  machines, 
but,  most  of  all,  wise  plans  must  be  prepared. 

9.  Likewise  at  Chios,  when  the  enemy  had  prepared  storming 
bridges  on  their  ships,  the  Chians,  by  night,  carried  out  earth, 
sand,  and  stones  into  the  sea  before  their  walls.  So,  when  the 
enemy,  on  the  next  day,  tried  to  approach  the  walls,  their  ships 
grounded  on  the  mound  beneath  the  water,  and  could  not  ap- 
proach the  wall  nor  withdraw,  but  pierced  with  fire-darts  were 
burned  there.  Again,  wThen  Apollonia  was  being  besieged,  and 
the  enemy  were  thinking,  by  digging  mines,  to  make  their  way 
within  the  walls  without  exciting  suspicion,  and  this  was  re- 
ported by  scouts  to  the  people  of  Apollonia,  they  were  much 
disturbed  and  alarmed  by  the  news,  and  having  no  plans  for 
defence,  they  lost  courage,  because  they  could  not  learn  either 
the  time  or  the  definite  place  where  the  enemy  would  come  out. 

10.  But  at  this  time  Trypho,  the  Alexandrine  architect,  was 


318 


VITRUVIUS 


[Book  X 


there.  He  planned  a number  of  countermines  inside  the  wall,  and 
extending  them  outside  the  wall  beyond  the  range  of  arrows, 
hung  up  in  all  of  them  brazen  vessels.  The  brazen  vessels  hanging 
in  one  of  these  mines,  which  was  in  front  of  a mine  of  the  enemy, 
began  to  ring  from  the  strokes  of  their  iron  tools.  So  from  this  it 
was  ascertained  where  the  enemy,  pushing  their  mines,  thought 
to  enter.  The  line  being  thus  found  out,  he  prepared  kettles  of 
hot  water,  pitch,  human  excrement,  and  sand  heated  to  a glow. 
Then,  at  night,  he  pierced  a number  of  holes,  and  pouring  the 
mixture  suddenly  through  them,  killed  all  the  enemy  who  were 
engaged  in  this  work. 

11.  In  the  same  manner,  when  Marseilles  was  being  besieged, 
and  they  were  pushing  forward  more  than  thirty  mines,  the  peo- 
ple of  Marseilles,  distrusting  the  entire  moat  in  front  of  their 
wall,  lowered  it  by  digging  it  deeper.  Thus  all  the  mines  found 
their  outlet  in  the  moat.  In  places  where  the  moat  could  not  be 
dug  they  constructed,  within  the  walls,  a basin  of  enormous 
length  and  breadth,  like  a fish  pond,  in  front  of  the  place  where 
the  mines  were  being  pushed,  and  filled  it  from  wells  and  from  the 
port.  And  so,  when  the  passages  of  the  mine  were  suddenly 
opened,  the  immense  mass  of  water  let  in  undermined  the  sup- 
ports, and  all  who  were  within  were  overpowered  by  the  mass  of 
water  and  the  caving  in  of  the  mine. 

12.  Again,  when  a rampart  was  being  prepared  against  the  wall 
in  front  of  them,  and  the  place  was  heaped  up  with  felled  trees  and 
works  placed  there,  by  shooting  at  it  with  the  ballistae  red-hot 
iron  bolts  they  set  the  whole  work  on  fire.  And  when  a ram- 
tortoise  had  approached  to  batter  down  the  wall,  they  let  down  a 
noose,  and  when  they  had  caught  the  ram  with  it,  winding  it  over 
a drum  by  turning  a capstan,  having  raised  the  head  of  the  ram, 
they  did  not  allow  the  wall  to  be  touched,  and  finally  they  de- 
stroyed the  entire  machine  by  glowing  fire-darts  and  the  blows  of 
ballistae.  Thus  by  such  victory,  not  by  machines  but  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  principle  of  machines,  has  the  freedom  of  states  been 
preserved  by  the  cunning  of  architects. 


Chap.  XVI] 


MEASURES  OF  DEFENCE 


819 


Such  principles  of  machines  as  I could  make  clear,  and  as  I 
thought  most  serviceable  for  times  of  peace  and  of  war,  I have 
explained  in  this  book.  In  the  nine  earlier  books  I have  dealt 
with  single  topics  and  details,  so  that  the  entire  work  contains  all 
the  branches  of  architecture,  set  forth  in  ten  books. 


FINIS 


SCAMILLI  IMPARES  (Book  in,  ch.  4) 


No  passage  in  Vitruvius  has  given  rise  to  so  much  discussion  or  been  the  subject  of  such  various 
interpretations  as  this  phrase.  The  most  reasonable  explanation  of  its  meaning  seems  to  be  that  of 
fimile  Burnouf,  at  one  time  Director  of  the  French  School  at  Athens,  published  in  the  Revue  Genirale 
del'  Architecture  for  1875,  as  a note  to  a brief  articleof  his  on  the  explanation  of  thecurves  of  Greek  Doric 
buildings.  This  explanation  was  accepted  by  Professor  Morgan,  who  called  my  attention  to  it  in  a 
note  dated  December  12,  1905.  It  has  also  quite  recently  been  adopted  by  Professor  Goodyear  in  his 
interesting  book  on  Greek  Refinements. 

Burnouf  would  translate  it  nivelettes  inigales,  “unequal  levellers.”  He  states  that  in  many  parts  of 
France  in  setting  a long  course  of  cut  stone  the  masons  make  use  of  a simple  device  consisting  of  three 
pointed  blocks  of  equal  height  used  as  levellers,  of  which  two  are  placed  one  at  each  extremity  of  the 
course,  while  the  third  is  used  to  level  the  stones,  as  they  are  successively  set  in  place,  by  setting  it 
upon  the  stone  to  be  set  and  sighting  across  the  other  two  levellers.  If  two  “levellers”  of  equal  height 
are  used  with  a third  of  less  height  placed  at  the  centre  of  the  course,  with  perhaps  others  of  inter- 
mediate height  used  at  intermediate  points,  it  would  obviously  be  equally  easy  to  set  out  a curved 
course,  as,  for  instance,  the  curved  stylobate  of  the  Parthenon  which  rises  about  three  inches  in  its 
length  of  one  hundred  feet.  By  a simple  calculation  any  desired  curve  could  be  laid  out  in  this  way. 
The  word  scamillus  is  a diminutive  of  scamnum,  a mounting-block  or  bench. 

Practically  the  same  explanation  is  given  by  G.  Georges  in  a memoir  submitted  to  the  Sorbonne 
in  April,  1875.  Georges  adds  an  interesting  list,  by  no  means  complete,  of  the  various  explanations 
that  have  been  offered  at  different  times. 

Philander  (1522-1552).  Projections  of  the  stylobate  or  pedestals. 

Barbaro  (1556-1690).  The  same. 

Bertano  (1558).  Swellings  of  the  die  of  the  stylobate  or  bosses  in  the  stylobate  or  the  frieze 

of  the  entablature. 

Baldus  (1612).  Sub-plinths  placed  under  the  bases  of  the  columns. 

Perrault  (1673-1684).  Projection  of  the  stylobate. 

Polleni  (1739).  The  same. 

Galiani  (1758-1790).  Projection  of  the  stylobate  with  hypothesis  of  embossments  on  the  sty- 
lobates and  the  bases  of  the  columns. 

Tardieu  and  Coussin  (1837)  and  Mauffras  (1847).  Projection  of  the  stylobates. 

Aurds  (1865).  Steps  or  offsets  between  the  stylobate  and  the  columns. 

The  list  of  Georges  is  wholly  French  and  Italian. 

Fra  Giocondo’s  interpretation  is  indicated  in  our  reproduction  of  the  illustration  in  his  edition  of 
1511. 


Hoffer  (1838)  and  afterwards  Pennethorne  (1846)  and  Penrose  (1851)  gave  measurements  showing 
the  curvatures  in  the  Parthenon  and  the  temple  of  Theseus  in  Athens.  Penrose  and  most  writers 
who  followed  him  supposed  the  “scamilli  impares”  to  be  projections  or  offsets  on  the  stylobate  re- 
quired on  account  of  the  curves  to  bring  the  column  into  relation  with  the  architraves  above,  and 
similar  offsets  of  unequal  or  sloping  form  were  supposed  to  be  required  above  the  abaci  of  the  capitals, 
but  such  offsets,  although  sometimes  existing,  have  no  obvious  connection  with  the  passage  in  Vi- 
truvius. C.  Botticher  (1863)  and  more  recently  Durm  have  denied  the  original  intention  of  the  curves 
and  ascribe  them  to  settlement,  a supposition  which  hardly  accords  with  the  observed  facts.  Reber, 
in  the  note  on  this  passage  in  his  translation  of  Vitruvius  (1865),  thinks  the  scamilli  were  sloping 
offsets  on  the  stylobate  to  cause  the  inclination  of  the  columns,  but  admits  that  nothing  of  the  kind 
has  been  found  in  the  remains  so  far  examined.  It  may  be  added  that  this  is  at  variance  with  the 
statement  of  the  purpose  of  the  scamilli  which  Vitruvius  gives. 

Assuming,  as  I think  we  must,  that  the  horizontal  curvature  of  the  stylobate  in  such  buildings  as 
the  Parthenon  was  intended  and  carefully  planned,  Burnouf’s  explanation  fits  the  case  precisely  and 
makes  this  passage  of  Vitruvius  straightforward  and  simple.  This  can  be  said  of  no  other  explanation, 
for  all  the  others  leave  the  passage  obscure  and  more  or  less  nonsensical.  Durm’s  attempt  to  refer 
the  passage  to  the  case  of  the  temple  with  a podium  which  has  just  been  spoken  of  by  Vitruvius  is 
somewhat  forced,  or  at  least  unnecessary.  Clearly  the  passage  refers  to  stylobates  in  general;  but 
Reber  also  so  translates  and  punctuates  as  to  make  the  use  of  the  “scamilli  impares”  refer  only  to 
the  case  of  temples  built  in  the  Roman  manner  with  the  podium.  His  resulting  explanation  still  leaves 
the  passage  obscure  and  unsatisfactory.  One  may  finally  refer  to  the  ingenious  but  improbable  ex- 
planation of  Choisy,  who  translates  it  echelons  impairs,  and  explains  them  as  offsets  (arranged  accord- 
ing to  the  odd  numbers,  nombres  impairs,  i.e.,  offsets  varying  at  equal  intervals  in  the  proportion  of 
1,  3,  5,  7,  9,  etc.,  and  which  he  claims  was  applied  also  to  the  entasis  of  columns. 


H.  L.  Warren. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abacus,  92,  106,  110,  122. 

"Azarov,  56. 

Abdera,  212,  269. 

Acanthus  pattern,  origin  of,  104. 

Accius,  255. 

Acoustics,  of  the  site  of  a theatre,  153  /. 
Acroteria,  96. 

Aequians  have  springs  which  produce  goitre, 
239. 

Aeruca  (verdigris),  219. 

Aeschylus,  198. 

Aesculapi  s,  proper  site  for  temple  of,  15; 

temple  of,  at  Tralles,  198. 

Aetna,  47. 

Africa,  240. 

Agatharcus,  198. 

Agesistratus,  199. 

Agger  (river),  231. 

Agnus  castus  (tree),  60/.,  296. 

* Akpo(3cltik6v , 283. 

Alabanda,  212;  temple  of  Apollo  at,  78. 
Alae,  of  house,  177;  of  temples,  120. 

Albula  (river),  233. 

Alder,  61. 

Alexander,  35  /.,  195,  310. 

Alexandria,  36,  196,  197,  218;  length  of 
shadow  of  gnomon  at,  270. 

Alexis  (poet),  168. 

Altars,  125/. 

Altino,  21. 

Aluminous  springs,  234. 

Amiternum,  stone  quarries  of,  49. 

Ammon,  235. 

Amphiprostyle,  75. 

Amphithalamos,  186. 

Amyntas,  310. 

Analemma,  257;  its  applications,  270  ff. 
Anaphoric  dial,  275. 

Anaxagoras,  195,  198,  225,  269. 

Ancona,  63. 

Andreas,  273. 

Andromeda  (constellation),  266. 

Andron  of  Ephesus,  70. 

Andrones,  187. 

Andronicus  of  Cyrrhus,  26. 

Antae,  114,  120,  186;  temple  in  antis,  75. 
Antiborean  (sun  dial),  273. 

Antimachides,  199. 

Antiochus,  199. 

Antipater,  238,  269. 

Antistates,  199. 

Apaturius,  212. 

Apelles,  11. 


Apollo,  69,  102,  103,  196;  Panionion,  103, 
255;  colossal  statue  of,  289;  temple  of,  at 
Alabanda,  78;  at  Miletus,  200;  at  Rome, 
80;  site  of  temple  of,  80. 

Apollonia,  235;  siege  of,  317/. 

Apollonius,  273. 

Apollonius  of  Perga,  12. 

Aqueducts,  244  J*.;  Marcian,  232. 

Aquileia,  21. 

Arabia,  235,  237. 

Arachne  (sun  dial),  273. 

Aradus,  315. 

Araeostyle  temples,  78,  80;  proportions  of 
columns  in,  84. 

Aratus,  269. 

Arcadia,  238. 

Arcesius,  109,  198. 

Arched  substructures,  190. 

Archer  (constellation),  266. 

Archimedes,  8,  12,  199,  243;  detects  a theft 
of  gold  by  a contractor,  253  /. 
Archinapolus  (astrologer),  269. 
Architecture,  fundamental  principles  of, 
13  jf.;  departments  of,  16  jf. 

Architrave,  94,  288. 

Archytas  of  Tarentum,  12,  199,  255. 
Arcturus  (star),  266. 

Ardea,  233. 

Arevanias,  54. 

Arezzo,  ancient  wall  of  brick  at,  53. 

Argo  (constellation),  268. 

Argolis,  precinct  of  Juno  at,  102. 

Argos,  54. 

Ariobarzanes,  154. 

Aristarchus,  11. 

of  Samos,  12,  263,  273. 

Aristides,  241. 

Aristippus,  shipwreck  of,  167. 

Aristomenes  of  Thasos,  70. 

Aristophanes,  168;  grammaticus,  196. 
Aristotle,  195,  251. 

Aristoxenus,  11,  140,  145. 

Armenian  blue,  213,  217. 

'Apjreddvcu  (star  group),  268. 

Arrow  (constellation),  266. 

Arsenal,  naval,  at  Peiraeus,  198. 

Arsinoe,  103. 

Artemisia,  55/. 

Artemon  (’Ewdycov),  287. 

Asphalt,  235;  asphaltic  springs,  234;  lake 
Asphaltitis,  235. 

" A<nr\r}vov,  20. 

Assafoetida  grown  in  Cyrene,  237. 


324 


INDEX 


Astansoba  (river),  231. 

Astoboa  (river),  231. 

Astragals,  90. 

Astrology,  269  jf. 

Athens,  26,  40,  53,  78,  124,  199,  200,  234; 
colonnades  at,  154;  temple  of  Minerva  at, 
198;  length  of  shadow  of  gnomon  at,  257, 
270. 

Athos,  Mt.,  35. 

" ArXavres,  188. 

Atlantides,  189. 

Atlas,  188,  231. 

Atrium,  185,  210;  proportions  of,  176/. 
Attalus,  53,  103,  195. 

Attic  doorways,  120. 

Aurelius,  Marcus,  3. 

Aventine,  216. 

Babylon,  24,  235. 

Bacchus,  proper  site  for  temple  of,  31 ; Ionic 
order  appropriate  to,  15;  temple  of,  at 
Teos,  82,  109,  198. 

Baiae,  46,  47. 

Bakeries,  184. 

Balance  (constellation),  266. 

Balconies  in  forum,  131. 

Balearic  Isles,  214,  240. 

Ballistae,  rules  for  making,  305  ff. 

Bankers’  offices,  131. 

Barns,  184. 

Bapov\K6s,  283. 

Bases,  Ionic,  90  jf. 

Basilica,  132  ff.;  of  Vitruvius  at  Fano, 
134  jf. 

Bathrooms,  180;  of  farmhouse,  183. 

Baths,  157  ff. 

Beast  (constellation),  268. 

Bedrooms,  181. 

Beech,  60. 

Berosus,  262,  269,  273. 

Bilberry,  used  to  make  purple,  220. 

Bird  (constellation),  266. 

Black,  217/. 

Block  ( rechamus ),  285  ff. 

Blue,  218/. 

Body,  proportions  of,  72. 

Boedas  of  Byzantium,  70. 

Boeotia,  237. 

Bolsena,  lake  of,  50. 

Borer,  principle  of,  311. 

Boscoreale,  villa  rustica  at,  183. 

Bowl  (constellation),  268. 

Breakwaters,  162  jf. 

Brick,  42  jf.;  test  of,  57. 

Bright  (Pephrasmenos),  inventor  of  batter- 
ing ram,  309. 

Bryaxis,  199. 

Bucket-pump,  294. 

Bug  (river),  231. 

Bull  (constellation),  266. 

Burnt-ochre,  218/. 


Buttresses,  190/. 

Byzantium,  310. 

Cadiz,  309. 

Caecuban  (wine),  236. 

Caesar,  Julius,  62/.,  240. 

Callaeschrus,  199. 

Callias  of  Aradus,  315. 

Callimachus  (Kara-n^iTCXJ'os),  104. 
Callippus,  269. 

Campania,  48,  64,  236,  238. 

Campus  Cornetus,  238. 

Canon  of  water  organ,  299. 

Canopus  (star),  268. 

Capitals,  Ionic,  92 ff.;  Corinthian,  102, 104/.; 

Doric,  110;  of  triglyphs,  112. 

Capitol,  hut  of  Romulus  on,  40;  temple  on, 
80. 

Cappadocia,  235. 

Carpion,  198. 

Carthage,  235. 

Caryae,  6 /. 

Caryatides,  6/. 

Casius  (town  in  Egypt),  235. 

Cassiopea  (constellation),  266. 

Castor,  temple  of,  124. 

Catacecaumenites  (wine),  236. 

Catapults,  303  ff. ; stringing  and  tuning  of, 
308/. 

Cataract  of  Nile,  231. 

Catheti,  92. 

Caucasus,  231. 

Cavaedium,  176  ff. 

Cedar,  62. 

Ceilings  of  baths,  158. 

Celia,  114  ff.,  120;  of  circular  temple,  123. 
Celtica,  231. 

Censer  (constellation),  267. 

Centaur  (constellation),  267. 

Cepheus  (constellation),  266. 

Cephisus,  237. 

Ceres,  temple  of  80,  200;  site  of  temple  of, 
32. 

Chalcedon,  309. 

Chaldeans,  262. 

Charias,  199,  310. 

Charioteer  (constellation),  266. 

XeipdKfjLrjra  of  Democritus,  255. 
Chersiphron,  78,  198,  200,  288. 

Chion  of  Corinth,  70. 

Chionides,  168. 

Chios,  103,  197;  siege  of,  317. 

Chorobates,  levelling  instrument,  242  /. 
Chrobs,  poisonous  lake  at,  237. 

Chromatic  mode,  140. 

Cibdeli,  234. 

Cicero,  256. 

Cilbian  country,  215. 

Cilicia,  235. 

Cinnabar,  215  jf.;  adulteration  of,  217. 
Circular  temples,  122  jf. 


INDEX 


325 


Circumference  of  earth,  27  /. 

Circumsonant  sites  of  theatres  ( irepirjxovvTes ), 
153. 

Circus,  Flaminius,  124,  273;  Maximus,  80. 
Cisterns,  244  /. 

City,  site  of,  17  /.;  walls,  21/. 
Classification  of  temples,  75  ff.,  78  ff. 
Clazomenae,  103,  269. 

Clearstock  of  fir,  60. 

Climate  determines  the  style  of  houses,  170. 
Clitor,  spring  at,  239. 

Colchis,  231. 

Colline  Gate,  75. 

Colonnades,  131,  154,  155,  156/.,  160/. 
Colophon,  103,  269. 

Colours,  214  ff.;  natural,  214/.;  artificial, 
217;  manufactured  from  flowers,  220; 
how  applied  to  stucco,  207. 

Columbaria  (<bra i),  108. 

Columns,  proportions  of,  in  colonnades, 
154;  in  forums,  132;  in  basilicas,  132; 
Corinthian,  102;  diminution  in  top  of, 
84  /. ; Ionic  order,  90  ff. ; arrangement  of, 
114. 

Conarachne  (sun  dial),  273. 

Concords  in  music,  142. 

Concrete  floors,  202. 

Cone  (sun  dial),  273. 

Conical  Plinthium  (sun  dial),  273. 
Consonancies  in  music,  142. 

Consonant  sites  of  theatres  ( avvrjxovvres ), 
153. 

Constellations,  northern,  265  ff.;  Southern, 
267/. 

Consumptives,  resin  of  larch  good  for, 
63. 

Corinth,  145. 

Corinthian  cavaedium,  176. 

Corinthian  order,  15;  origin  of,  102/.;  pro- 
portions of,  106/.;  treatise  on,  by  Arce- 
sius,  198. 

Cornelius,  Gnaeus,  3. 

Corona,  102,  107, 112. 

Cos,  island  of,  269. 

Cossutius,  200. 

Courage  dependent  on  climate,  173. 
Counterforts,  190. 

Courtyards,  183. 

Crab  (constellation),  268. 

Crathis  (river),  237. 

Crete,  20,  62. 

Creusa,  103. 

Croesus,  195;  house  of,  at  Sardis,  53. 
Cross-aisles  in  theatre,  138,  146;  in  Greek 
theatre,  151. 

Crown  (constellation),  266. 

Ctesibius,  8,  199,  273/.;  pump  of,  297  /. 
Cube,  properties  of,  130. 

Cubit  equals  six  palms  or  twenty-four 
fingers,  74. 

Cumae,  162. 


Cunei  in  theatre,  146. 

Cutiliae,  234. 

Cyclades,  214. 

Cydnus,  234. 

Cymatium,  94,  110;  Doric,  112. 

Cypress,  59,  61. 

Cyrene,  27,  237,  255. 

Daphnis  of  Miletus,  200. 

Darius,  195. 

Decorations  of  walls,  209  /. 

Defence,  measures  for,  315  ff. 

Delos,  problem  enjoined  upon,  by  Apollo, 
255. 

Delphi,  Round  Building  at,  198. 

Demetrius  of  Phalerum,  200. 

Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  316. 

Demetrius  (slave  of  Diana),  200. 

Democles,  199. 

Democritus,  42, 195, 251, 255, 269;  his  study 
of  perspective,  198. 

Demophilus,  199. 

Denarius,  74. 

Dentils,  94,  102,  108. 

Departments  of  architecture,  16/. 

Diades,  199;  inventor  of  siege  machines, 
310. 

Dials  arranged  to  show  hours  of  varying 
length,  274/. 

Diana,  temple  of  Ionic  order,  15,  78;  temple 
of,  at  Ephesus,  78,  103,  198,  200,  288/.; 
at  Rome,  80,  124;  at  Magnesia,  78,  198; 
statue  of,  62. 

Diatonic  mode,  140. 

Diastyle  temples,  78,  80;  proportions  of 
columns  in,  84;  Doric,  113. 

A iddvpa,  188. 

Dichalca,  74. 

Diesis,  140. 

Diminution  in  top  of  column,  84,  110. 
Dining  rooms,  proportions  of,  179,  181, 
186;  Cyzicene,  186;  winter,  209/. 
Dinocrates,  35/. 

Diognetus,  Rhodian  architect,  315  ff. 
Diomede,  21. 

Dionysodorus,  273. 

Dioptra,  242. 

Diphilus,  199. 

Dipteral  temple,  75,  78. 

Displuviate  cavaedium,  177. 

Dissonant  Sites  of  theatres  (Karrixovyret), 
153. 

Dnieper,  231. 

Dog  (constellation),  268. 

Dolphin  (constellation),  266. 

Don  (river),  231. 

Doors,  of  temples,  118/.;  of  dwellings,  178; 
in  theatres,  146. 

Doorways  of  temples,  proportions  of,  117/. 
Doric  order,  15;  proportions  of,  109  /.; 
doorways,  117;  temples  of,  198. 


326 


INDEX 


Dorus,  102. 

Drachma,  74. 

Dyer’s  weed,  220. 

Dyris  (river),  231. 

Dyrrachium,  235. 

Eagle  (constellation),  266. 

Echea  (r/xeTa),  9,  143  /. 

Echinus,  93,  110,  122. 

Economy,  16. 

Education  of  the  architect,  5 ff.,  168/. 
Egypt,  214,  231,  235,  269. 

’E K(f>opd,  90. 

Elements  (<TT©ixeia)  and  their  proportions, 
18/.,  225. 

Elephantis,  231. 

Eleusis,  200. 

'EXLktj,  267. 

Elpias  of  Rhodes,  21. 

Empedocles,  225. 

"EiuLTrXeKTOv,  52. 

Engines,  283;  for  raising  water,  293/. 
Enharmonic  mode,  140. 

Ennius,  255. 

"Evraffis  of  columns,  86. 

Eolipiles,  25. 

Ephesus,  103,  214,  215,  281;  temple  of 
Diana  at,  78,  198,  200. 

Epicharmus,  225. 

Epicurus,  42,  167,  195. 

Epimachus,  316. 

Equestrian  Fortune,  temple  of,  80. 
Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene,  12,  27,  28,  255. 
Erythrae,  103. 

Ethiopia,  231,  235. 

Etruria  (Tuscany),  48,  64,  235. 

Eucrates,  168. 

Euctemon,  269. 

Eudoxus,  269,  273. 

Eumenes,  colonnades  of,  154. 

Euphranor,  199. 

Euphrates,  231. 

Euripides,  225;  buried  in  Macedonia,  238; 

“Phaethon”  of,  261. 

Eurythmy,  14. 

Eustyle  temples,  78,  80  /.;  proportions  of 
columns  in,  84. 

Exedrae,  160,  179,  186,  211. 

Exposure,  proper  for  rooms,  180/. 

Faberius,  216. 

Falernian  (wine),  236. 

Fano,  63;  basilica  at,  134/. 

Farmhouses,  183/. 

Fascia,  94;  of  Attic  doorway,  120. 

Fauces,  their  dimensions,  178. 

Faunus  temple  on  the  Island  of  the  Tiber, 
75. 

Femur  ( /mrip6s ),  112. 

Ferento,  50. 

Fidenae,  stone  quarries  at,  49. 


Fir,  qualities  of,  60;  highland  and  lowland, 
64/. 

Fire,  origin  of,  38. 

Fishes  (constellation),  266. 

Flaminius  circus,  124. 

Floors,  202  /.;  Greek  method  of  making, 
210;  of  baths,  157  /. 

Flora,  temple  of  Corinthian  order,  15. 
Flutes  of  columns,  96;  Doric,  113. 

Folds  for  sheep  and  goats,  184. 

Fondi,  236. 

Foot  equals  four  palms,  or  sixteen  fingers, 
74. 

Fortune,  temple  of  Equestrian,  80;  Three 
Fortunes,  75. 

Forum,  131/. 

Foundations  of  temples,  86  /.;  of  houses, 
189#. 

Fresco  painting,  decadence  of,  210/. 
Frieze,  94,  123. 

Fuficius  (architect),  199. 

Fulcrum  (vtto/jl6xXiov),  290. 

Ganges,  231. 

Y&j'ucns,  217. 

Gaul,  220,  231. 

Geras,  inventor  of  shed  for  battering  ram, 
309. 

Gilding,  215. 

Gnomon,  257;  length  of  shadow  at  different 
places,  270. 

Gnosus,  20,  200. 

Gorgon’s  head  (star  group),  266. 

Gortvna,  20. 

Grain  rooms,  184. 

Greater  Dog  (constellation),  268. 

Great  Bear,  257;  (Ap/cros  or  eXinrj),  265. 
Grecian  Station,  56. 

Greek  houses,  185  ff. 

Green  chalk  ( deodoreiov ),  214. 

Grotta  Rossa,  stone  quarries  at,  49. 

Guttae,  102,  110,  112. 

Gynaeconitis,  186. 

Gypsum  not  to  be  used  for  stucco  work,  206. 

Halicarnassus,  53,  54. 

Harbinger  of  the  Vintage  (star),  265. 
Harbours,  162  ff. 

Harmonics,  139/. 

Hegesias,  241. 

He-Goat  (constellation),  266. 

Helepolis  of  Epimachus,  316/. 

Hellen,  102. 

Hemisphere  (sun  dial),  273. 

Heptabolus,  lake,  231. 

Heptagonus,  lake,  231. 

Heraclea,  289. 

Heraclitus  of  Ephesus,  42,  225. 

Hercules,  Doric  order  appropriate  to,  15; 
site  of  temple  of,  31;  cellae  of  temple  of, 
53;  Pompey’s  temple  of,  80. 


INDEX 


327 


Hermodorus,  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  78. 
Hermogenes,  109;  temple  of  Diana  by,  78; 
determined  rules  of  symmetry  for  eustyle 
temples,  82. 

Herodotus,  241. 

Herring-bone  pattern,  203. 

Hierapolis,  boiling  springs  at,  236. 

Hiero,  253  /. 

Hinge-stiles,  118. 

Hipparchus,  269. 

Hippocrates,  11. 

Hodometer,  301  jj. 

Hoisting  machines,  285. 

Homer,  197. 

Hornbeam,  61. 

Horse  (constellation),  266. 

Hostilius,  Marcus,  21. 

Hot  springs,  232;  healing  properties  of, 
233/. 

Hours,  how  marked  by  clocks,  274. 

House,  origin  of,  38  /.;  early  types  of,  39/.; 

style  of,  determined  by  climate,  170/. 
Hypaethral  temple,  14,  75,  78. 

Hypanis,  214,  236. 

Hysginum,  220. 

Ictinus,  198,  200. 

Iliad  and  Odyssey,  197. 

Ilium,  237. 

Incertum  opus,  51. 

India,  231. 

India  ink,  217,  218. 

Indigo,  substitute  for,  220. 

Indus,  231. 

Iollas,  238. 

Ion,  103. 

Ionic  order,  15;  proportions  of,  90  ff.;  door- 
ways of,  118;  temples  of,  198,  200. 

Isis,  site  of  temple  of,  31. 

Ismuc,  240. 

Isodomum,  52. 

Isthmian  games,  251. 

Italy,  48,  53,  131,  145,  173,  214,  231,  239. 

Jaffa,  235. 

Jambs,  proportions  of,  117. 

Juba,  King,  240. 

Julius,  Caius,  son  of  Masinissa,  240. 

Juno,  Ionic  order  appropriate  to,  15;  site 
for  temple  of,  31;  precinct  at  Argolis,  102; 
Doric  temple  of,  in  Samos,  198. 

Jupiter,  temple  of,  14,  199;  site  for  temple 
of,  31;  cellae  of  temple,  53;  temple  on 
Island  of  the  Tiber,  75;  altars  of,  125. 
Jupiter  (planet),  258,  260,  261,  262. 

Kids  (constellation),  266. 

Kitchen,  183. 

Kneeler  (constellation),  266. 

Knotwood,  60. 

Kvvdvovpa,  267. 


Lacedaemonians,  7. 

Laconicum,  159. 

Lacunar  (sun  dial),  273. 

Language,  origin  of,  38. 

Larch,  62/. 

Larignum,  62,  63. 

Law  governing  architects  at  Ephesus,  281. 
Lead  pipes  poisonous,  247. 

Lebedos,  103. 

Lemnos,  214. 

Leochares,  54,  199. 

Leonidas,  199. 

Lesbos,  25,  236. 

Levelling  instruments,  242/. 

Lever,  explanation  of,  290  /. 

Libraries,  181,  186. 

Licymnius,  212/. 

Lighting  of  rooms,  how  to  test,  185. 

Lime,  45/.;  slaking  of,  for  stucco,  204. 
Linden,  60. 

Lintels,  height  of,  117. 

Lion  (constellation),  268. 

Liparis  (river),  235. 

Little  Dog  (constellation),  268. 

Liver  examined  to  determine  site  of  towns, 

20. 

AoyeTov,  scenic  and  thymelic,  151,  dimen- 
sions of,  151. 

Logotomus,  272. 

Lucania,  237. 

Lucretius,  256. 

Lyncestus,  acid  springs  of,  238. 

Lyre  (constellation),  267. 

Lysippus,  69. 

Macedonia,  217,  238. 

Machines,  283 /f.;  for  defence,  315  f. 
Maeonia,  wine  of,  236. 

Magi,  225. 

Magnesia,  78,  214,  240;  temple  of  Diana  at, 
198. 

Malachite  green,  213;  where  found,  217; 

substitute  for,  220. 

Mamertine  (wine),  236. 

Marble,  powdered  for  stucco  work,  206, 
213/.;  where  quarried,  289. 

Marius’  temple  of  Honour  and  Valour,  78. 
Mars,  temple  should  be  Doric,  15;  site  of 
temple  of,  31. 

Mars  (planet),  259/.,  262. 

Marseilles,  siege  of,  318. 

Maurusia  (Mauretania),  231. 

Mausoleum,  54,  199. 

Mausolus,  53  ff. 

Mazaca,  lake  near,  petrifies  reeds,  etc.,  235. 
Medicine,  architect  should  know,  10. 
Medulli  have  springs  which  produce  goitre, 
239. 

Melampus,  199,  239. 

Melas  of  Argos,  54. 

Melas  (river),  237. 


328 


INDEX 


Melassa,  54. 

Melian  white,  214. 

Melite,  103. 

Melos,  214. 

Menaeils,  272. 

Mercury,  site  of  temple  of,  31;  temple  of, 
54. 

Mercury  (planet),  258,  259. 

Meroe,  231. 

Mesauloe,  187. 

Metagenes,  198,  200,  288. 

Metellus,  portico  of,  78. 

Meto,  269. 

Metopes  (fj-erdm]),  94,  108,  110;  size  of, 
112;  arrangement  of,  in  Doric  temples, 
113. 

Metrodorus,  241. 

Miletus,  103,  200,  269. 

Milo  of  Croton,  251. 

Minerva,  temple  should  be  Doric,  15;  site 
of  temple,  31;  temple  at  Sunium,  124;  at 
Priene,  11,  198;  at  Athens,  198. 

Minidius,  Publius,  3. 

Mithridates,  154. 

Modes  of  music,  140  ff. 

Moon,  258;  phases  of,  262/. 

Mortar,  consistency  of,  for  stucco  work, 
206/.;  of  burnt  brick,  209. 

Motion,  elements  of,  290 jf. 

Mouldings  for  stucco  work,  206. 

Mucius,  C.,  temple  of  Honour  and  Valour, 
78,  200. 

Mummius,  Lucius,  145. 

Muses,  253;  fountain  of,  232. 

Music  useful  to  architect,  8. 

Mutules,  102,  108;  of  Tuscan  temples,  122. 
Myager  the  Phocaean,  70. 

Myron,  11,  69. 

Mysia  the  “Burnt  District,”  47. 

Mytilene,  25. 

Myus,  103. 

Nemean  games,  251. 

Neptune,  spring  of,  237. 

Nexaris,  199. 

Nile,  36,  231;  temples  on,  should  face  the 
river,  117. 

Nonacris,  “Water  of  the  Styx,”  238. 

Notes,  names  of,  141  f. 

Number,  perfect,  73  /. 

Nymphodorus,  199. 

Nymphs,  temple  of  Corinthian  order,  15. 

Oak,  60;  in  floors,  202. 

Obols,  74. 

Ochre  (&xPa)>  214. 

Oeci,  distinction  between  Corinthian  and 
Egyptian,  179;  Cyzicene,  180. 

Oil  room,  184. 

Olympian  games,  251. 

’Ottc xl,  108. 


Opus  incertum,  51;  reticulatum,  51;  Signi- 
num,  247/. 

Orchestra,  reserved  for  senators,  146;  of 
Greek  theatre,  151. 

Order  appropriate  to  temples,  15;  origin  of 
different  orders,  102  ff. 

Organ,  water,  299/. 

"0 pyavov,  283. 

Orientation  of  streets,  24  ff.;  of  temples, 
116/. 

Orion  (constellation),  268. 

Ornaments  of  the  orders,  107  ff. 

Orpiment  (apaeviKbv),  214. 

Ostrum,  source  of  purple  dye,  220. 

Paconius,  289. 

Paeonius  of  Ephesus,  200. 

Palaestra,  159  ff. 

Palla,  stone  quarries  at,  49. 

Panels  of  doors,  118. 

Paphlagonia,  intoxicating  springs  of,  239. 

IT  apa.5pop.l8es,  188. 

Paraetonium,  235;  white,  214. 

Parapet  of  theatre,  dimensions  of,  148. 
Parmenio,  273. 

Paros,  289. 

Pastas,  186. 

Patras,  cellae  of  temple  built  of  brick,  53. 
Patrocles,  273. 

Pausanias,  son  of  Agesipolis,  7. 

Peiraeus,  234;  naval  arsenal  at,  198. 
Peisistratus,  199. 

Pelecinum  (sun  dial),  273. 

Penne,  234. 

Pentaspast  (hoisting  machine),  285. 
Pergamus,  196. 

Peripteral  temple,  75/. 

Peristyle,  186;  decorations  of,  210/.;  pro- 
portions of,  179;  Rhodian,  186. 

Peritreti,  303/. 

Perseus  (constellation),  266. 

Persian  Porch,  7. 

Persians,  statues  of,  8 /. 

Perspective,  commentaries  on  by  Agathar- 
cus,  Anaxagoras,  and  Democritus,  198. 
Pesaro,  63. 

Pharax  of  Ephesus,  70. 

Phasis,  231. 

Phidias,  69. 

Philippus  (physicist),  269. 

Philip  son  of  Amyntas,  310. 

Philo,  198,  200;  of  Byzantium,  199. 
Philolaus  of  Tarentum,  12. 

Philosophy,  why  useful  to  architect,  8. 
Phocaea,  103. 

Phrygia,  236. 

Phthia,  102. 

Picenum,  49. 

Picture  galleries,  179,  186. 

Piles,  of  alder,  61;  olive,  or  oak,  88. 

II iva%  of  water  organ,  299. 


INDEX 


329 


Pine,  61. 

Pixodorus  discovers  marble  near  Ephesus, 
289;  his  name  changed  to  Evangelus,  290. 
Planets,  257 jf.;  their  retrograde  movement, 
260/. 

Plataea,  battle  of,  7. 

Plato,  195,  251;  rule  for  doubling  the  square, 
252. 

IlXeidSes,  189. 

Plinthium  (sun  dial),  273. 

Hvev/jLctTiKOP,  283. 

Po,  231. 

Podium  of  theatre,  height  of,  148. 

Pollis,  199. 

II6\oi  (pivots  of  heaven),  257. 

Polus  (star),  267. 

Polycles  of  Ephesus,  70. 

Polyclitus,  11,  69. 

Polyidus,  199,  310. 

Polyspast  (hoisting  machine),  288. 
Pompeian  pumice,  47. 

Pompey,  colonnades  of,  154;  temple  of 
Hercules,  80. 

Pontic  wax,  216,  217. 

Pontus,  214,  220,  231,  236. 

Poplar,  60. 

Pormus,  199. 

Posidonius,  241. 

Pothereus  (river),  20. 

Pozzolana,  46  /. 

Praxiteles,  199. 

Pressing  room,  183/. 

Priene,  103;  Temple  of  Minerva  at,  11, 
198. 

Primordial  substance,  42. 

Prison,  location  of,  137. 

Proconnesus,  289. 

Pronaos,  114  jf.,  120. 

Proportions,  72,  174/.;  of  circular  temples, 
123/.;  of  colonnades,  154/.;  of  columns 
and  intercolumniations,  78/'.,  116;  of  the 
Corinthian  order,  106/.;  of  doorways  of 
temples,  117/".;  of  Doric  temples,  109/*.; 
of  the  Ionic  order,  90  jf.;  of  rooms,  176  jf. 
Propriety,  14/*. 

Proscaenium  of  Greek  theatre,  151. 
Proserpine  temple  of  Corinthian  order,  15; 
temple  of,  200. 

Upbs  iroiv  icXi/xa  (sun  dial),  273. 

Upbs  ra  iaTopovpLepa  (sun  dial),  273. 

Prostas,  186. 

Prostyle,  75. 

Proteus,  daughters  of,  239. 

Prothyra,  188. 

Protropum  (wine),  236. 

UporpvyriTris  (star),  265. 

Pseudisodomum,  52. 

Pseudodipteral  temple,  75,  78,  82. 
Pseudoperipteral  temples,  125. 

Pteroma,  82, 114,  125. 

Ptolemy,  196, 197;  Philadelphus,  197. 


Public  buildings,  sites  of,  31  /. 

Pump  of  Ctesibius,  297  /. 

Purple,  213,  219;  substitutes  for,  220/. 

Puzzuoli,  218. 

Pycnostyle  temples,  78  /. ; proportions  of 
columns  in,  84. 

Pyrrus,  199. 

Pythagoras,  42,  130,  225,  251,  269;  right 
triangle  of,  252  /. 

Pytheos,  11,  109,  198,  199. 

Pythian  games,  251. 

Quarries  of  Grotta  Rosa,  Palla,  Fidenae, 
Campania,  Umbria,  Picenum,  Tivoli, 
Amiternum,  Venetia,  Tarquinii,  Lake  of 
Bolsena,  Ferento,  49,  50. 

Quicksilver,  215/*. 

Quirinus,  temple  of,  78. 

Quiver  (sun  dial),  273. 

Rainwater,  229/*. 

Ram,  battering,  309/.;  Hegetor’s,  314/. 

Ram  (constellation),  266. 

Raven  (constellation),  268. 

Raven,  a machine  of  no  value,  310  /. 

Ravenna,  21,  61,  63. 

Reduction  of  columns,  114. 

Refraction  explained,  175. 

Resin,  soot  of,  used  to  make  black,  218. 

Resonant  sites  of  theatres  (&PTrixovpTes) , 153. 

Retaining  walls,  190/. 

Reticulatum  opus,  51. 

Retrogression  of  planets,  261. 

Rhine,  231. 

Rhodes,  55  /.,  167,  219,  220;  length  of 
shadow  of  gnomon  at,  270;  siege  of,  316/. 

Rhone,  231, 

River  (constellation),  268. 

Rivers  rise  in  the  north,  231. 

Rome,  63,  64,  78,  80, 145,  217;  site  of,  deter- 
mined by  divine  intelligence,  174;  length 
of  shadow  of  gnomon  at,  270. 

Romulus,  hut  of,  40. 

Roofs,  of  mud,  39  /.;  timbers  of,  107;  of 
Tuscan  temples,  122;  of  circular  temples, 
124. 

Rooms,  proportions  of,  176/*.;  proper  ex- 
posure for,  180  /.;  should  be  suited  to 
station  of  the  owner,  181  /. 

Round  Building  at  Delphi,  198. 

Salmacis,  spring  of,  54. 

Salpia  in  Apulia,  21. 

Sambuca  illustrates  effect  of  climate  on 
voice,  171. 

Samos,  12, 103,  263,  269,  273;  Doric  temple 
of  Juno  in,  198. 

Sand,  44/.,  48. 

Sandarach,  214;  made  from  white  lead,  219. 

Sardis,  53. 

Sarnacus,  199. 


330 


INDEX 


Saturn  (planet),  260,  261,  262. 

Satyrus,  199. 

Scaena  of  theatre,  146;  dimensions  of,  148; 
scheme  of,  150;  decorations  of,  150;  of 
theatre  at  Tralles,  212. 

Scale,  musical,  141. 

Scaling  machine,  311. 

Scamilli  impares,  89,  155,  320. 

Scaphe  (sun  dial),  273. 

Scopas,  199. 

Scopinas,  12,  273. 

Scorpion  (constellation),  266. 

Scorpiones,  rules  for  making,  303  ff. 

Scotia,  90,  112. 

Scutula  of  ballistae,  306  /. 

Seats  in  theatre,  dimensions  of,  148. 
Selinusian  chalk  (tVa-rts),  220. 

Semiramis,  235. 

Senate  house,  location  of,  137. 
Septentriones  (She-Bears),  267. 

Septimius,  P.,  199. 

Serapis,  site  of  temple  of,  31. 

Serpent  (constellation),  266. 

Serpent-holder  (constellation),  266. 
Sesterce,  74. 

She-Goat  (constellation),  266. 

Ship,  motion  of,  explained,  291. 

Shipyards,  164. 

Sicily,  236. 

Siege  machines,  309  ff. 

Signinum  work,  247  /. 

Signs  of  the  Zodiac,  258;  sun’s  course 
through,  264/.;  shown  on  dials,  276/. 
Silanion,  199. 

Silenus,  on  the  proportions  of  Doric  struc- 
tures, 198. 

Simae  ( iTrcuerldes ),  96,  108. 

Sinope,  214. 

Smyrna,  197,  214;  Stratoniceum  at,  154. 
Snake  (constellation),  268. 

Socrates,  69,  70,  195. 

Soli,  235. 

Soracte,  stone  quarries  of,  49. 

Sounding  vessels  in  the  theatre,  143  jf. 
Southern  Fish  (constellation),  267. 

Spain,  214;  cinnabar  mines  of,  217. 

Sparta,  paintings  on  brick  walls  at,  53. 
Spica  (star),  265. 

Stables,  184,  186. 

Statonia,  50. 

Steelyard,  description  of,  291. 

Steps  of  temples  odd  in  number,  88. 
Stereobates,  88. 

Stone,  48,  49/. 

Stratoniceum,  154. 

Streets,  directions  of,  24. 

Stucco,  204  ff. ; in  damp  places,  208  ff. 
Stucco-workers,  Greek,  208. 

Stylobates,  88. 

Substructures  of  houses,  189  ff. 

Sulphur  springs,  233  /. 


Sun,  258/.;  course  of,  through  the  twelve 
signs,  264/. 

Sundials,  273  ff.;  how  designed,  270  ff. 

Sunium,  temple  of  Pallas  at,  124. 

Susa,  spring  at,  240. 

Syene,  231. 

Symmetry,  14;  in  temples  and  in  the  human 
body,  72  /.;  modifications  to  suit  site, 
174/. 

Syracuse,  273. 

Syria,  231,  235,  237. 

Systyle  temples,  78/.;  proportions  of  col- 
umns in,  84;  Doric,  113. 

Tablinum,  proportions  of,  178. 

Tarentum,  12,  255;  length  of  shadow  of 
gnomon  at,  270. 

Tarquinii,  50. 

Tarsus,  234,  240. 

Teano,  acid  springs  of,  238. 

Telamones,  188. 

Teleas  of  Athens,  70. 

TeXet ov  (perfect  number),  73/. 

Tempering  of  iron,  18. 

Temples,  classification  of,  75  ff.;  circular, 
122  Jf.;  Corinthian,  102/.;  Doric,  109  ff.; 
Ionic,  90  ff.;  Tuscan,  120;  foundations  of, 
86  ff.;  orientation  of,  116/.;  proportion  of 
columns  of,  78  -ff.;  sites  of,  31  /.;  Aescula- 
pius, 15,  198;  Apollo,  31,  78,  80,  200; 
Bacchus,  15,  31,  82,  109,  198;  Castor, 
124;  Ceres,  32,  80,  200;  Diana,  15,  78,  80, 
103,  124,  198,  200,  288  /.;  Equestrian 
Fortune,  80;  Faunus,  75;  Flora,  15;  Three 
Fortunes,  75;  Hercules,  15,  31,  53,  80; 
Isis,  31;  Juno,  15,  31, 198;  Jupiter,  14,  31, 
53,  75,  199;  Honour  and  Valour,  78,  200; 
Mars,  15,  31;  Mercury,  31,  54;  Minerva, 
11,  15,  31,  124,  198;  Nymphs,  15;  Proser- 
pine, 15,  200;  Quirinus,  78;  Serapis,  31; 
Vejovis,  124;  Venus,  15,  31,  54;  Vulcan, 
31. 

Teos,  103;  temple  of  Bacchus  at,  82,  198. 

Terracina,  236,  237. 

Testudinate  cavaedium,  177. 

Tetrachords,  140  ff. 

Tetrastyle  cavaedium,  176. 

Thalamos,  186. 

Thales,  42,  195,  225,  269. 

Thasos,  289. 

Theatre,  137  ff.;  site  of,  137;  foundations  of, 
138  /.;  entrances  to,  138,  148;  plan  of 
Roman,  146  ff.;  plan  of  Greek,  151  ff.; 
sounding  vessels  in,  143  /.;  acoustics  of 
site  of,  153  ff. 

Thebes  in  Egypt,  231. 

Themistocles,  colonnade  of,  154. 

Theo  of  Magnesia,  70. 

Theocydes,  199. 

Theodorus,  198. 

Theodorus  the  Phocian,  198. 


INDEX 


331 


Theodosius,  273. 

Theodotus,  214. 

Theophrastus,  167,  241. 

Thessaly,  237. 

Thrace,  237. 

Qvpojpeiov,  186. 

Tiber,  231. 

Tigris,  231. 

Timaeus,  241. 

Timavo,  231. 

Timber,  58  /. 

Timotheus,  54,  199. 

Tivoli,  233;  stone  quarries  of,  49. 

Tortoise,  311  ff.;  of  battering  ram,  310; 

Hegetor’s,  312  ff. 

Torus,  90. 

Towers,  construction  of,  22/.;  dimensions  of 
moveable,  310. 

Tralles,  212;  palace  of  brick  at,  53;  colon- 
nades at,  154;  temple  of  Aesculapius  at, 
198. 

Treasury,  location  of,  137. 

Trichalca,  74. 

Triglyphs,  origin  of,  107  ff.;  arrangement  of, 
109/.,  113;  size  of,  112. 

Trispast  (hoisting  machine),  285. 

TpoxtXos  (scotia),  90. 

Troezen,  54,  234. 

Troy,  195,  211,  237. 

Trypho,  Alexandrine  architect,  317  /. 

Tufa,  its  qualities,  49. 

Tuscan,  cavaedium,  176;  temples,  120/. 
Twins  (constellation),  266. 

Tyana,  235. 

Tympanum,  96, 122;  water  tympanum,  293. 
Tyre,  309. 

Ulysses,  211. 

Universe,  definition  of,  257. 

Varro,  M.  Terentius,  199,  256. 

Vaultings,  205  ff. 

Vejovis,  temple  of,  124. 

Velian  country,  acid  springs  of,  238. 

Venter  ( koiXLcl ),  245. 

Venus,  Corinthian  order  appropriate  to,  15; 

site  of  temple  of,  31;  temple  of,  54. 
Venus  (planet),  259. 

Verdigris,  219. 

Vergiliae,  189. 

Vermilion,  213,  215;  preparation  of,  216. 
Vesta,  altar  of,  125. 

Vestorius,  218. 

Vesuvius,  46,  47. 

Via  Campana,  238. 

Vinegar  a solvent  of  rocks,  239. 

Violets  used  for  purple  colour,  220. 


Virgin  (constellation),  265. 

Vitruvius,  education,  13,  168;  personal 
appearance,  36;  method  of  writing,  107  ff.; 
military  service,  3;  his  basilica  at  Fano, 
134/. 

Voice,  defined,  138/.;  pitch  of,  determined 
by  climate,  171. 

Volutes,  93. 

Voussoirs,  190. 

Vulcan,  site  of  temple  of,  31. 

Walks,  how  to  be  constructed,  156;  serve 
practical  purpose,  156. 

Walls,  material  for,  24;  methods  of  building, 
51  ff.,  56;  of  brick  are  durable,  53;  of 
rubble,  53. 

Warden  (constellation),  265. 

Water  (constellation),  268. 

Water,  225/.;  indispensable,  226;  how  to 
find,  227  ff.;  properties  of,  232  ff.;  tests 
of  good,  242;  methods  of  conducting, 
244/ 

Water  clocks,  273  ff. 

Waterman  (constellation),  266. 

Water  organ,  299  /. 

Water  pipes,  244  ff. 

Water  screw,  295  ff. 

Water  wheels,  294. 

Wattle  and  daub,  57  /. 

Weather  prognostics,  269  /. 

Wells,  244  ff. 

Whale  (constellation),  267. 

Wheel  (tread  mill),  286/. 

White  lead,  219,  238  /. 

Willow,  60. 

Winds,  names  and  number  of,  26  ff. ; dia- 
grams of,  29  /. ; orientation  of  cities  with 
reference  to,  24  ff. 

Wine,  given  its  flavour  by  soil  and  water, 
236;  lees  used  to  make  black,  218. 

Wine  rooms,  184. 

Xanthus,  237. 

Xenia,  187. 

Xenophanes,  195,  269. 

Zvaros,  161,  188. 

Xuthus,  103. 

Xysta  (Trapadpop.lde s),  161,  188. 

Yellow  ochre,  220. 

Zacynthus,  235. 

Zama,  240. 

Zea,  spring  at,  239  /. 

Zeno,  195. 

Zodiac,  257  ff. 

Zoilus  (Homeromastix),  197. 


(Cbe  ftrtmtfibe 

PRINTED  BY  H.  O.  HOUGHTON  fit  CO. 
CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 

U.  S.  A. 


•• 


88  Vitruvius  The  Ten  Books  on  Architecture.  Translated  by  Morris  Hicky 
Morgan.  330  pp.  text,  60  ill.  on  pi.  Large  8vo.  Cambridge  1914.  Ebhardt.  Vitruvius 
p 90.  (p.  88  on  Morgan  as  a Vitruvius  scholar).  3>zu.uu 


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